Optimal integrated sizing and operation of a CHP system with Monte Carlo risk analysis for long-term uncertainty in energy demands

In this study a probabilistic approach for optimal sizing of cogeneration systems under long-term uncertainty in energy demand is proposed. A dynamic simulation framework for detailed modeling of the energy system is defined, consisting in both traditional and optimal operational strategies evaluation. A two-stage stochastic optimization algorithm is developed, adopting Monte Carlo method for the definition of a multi-objective optimization problem. An Italian hospital facility has been used as a case study and a gas internal combustion engine is considered for the cogeneration unit. The results reveal that the influence of uncertainties on both optimal size and annual total cost is significant. Optimal size obtained with the traditional deterministic approach are found to be sub-optimal (up to 30% larger) and the predicted annual cost saving is always lower when accounting for uncertainties. Pareto frontiers of different CHP configurations are presented and show the effectiveness of the proposed method as a useful tool for risk management and focused decision-making, as tradeoffs between system efficiency and system robustness

Detection of Jamming Attacks via Source Separation and Causal Inference

Jamming attacks to hinder communication capabilities are becoming a critical aspect of wireless networks. A challenging issue is the detection of reactive jammers that perform spectrum sensing and attack the network only when legitimate communication is in progress. In this scenario, we introduce a novel framework for reactive jamming detection using a patrol of radio-frequency (RF) sensors external to the network to be protected. The solution relies on two key components: i) a novel underdetermined blind source separation (UBSS) method that, starting from the signal mixtures observed by the RF patrollers, is capable of separating the jamming temporal profile from the network nodes’ transmission profiles; ii) a new jamming detection based on causal inference called all-versus-one transfer entropy (AvOTE). The framework is then applied to a case study where the victim network is a Long Range (LoRa)-based internet of things (IoT) system with star topology. The solution outperforms a state-of-the-art method and an approach that attempts to find the causal relationship via time series correlation, exhibiting very good performance in the presence of shadowing. Indeed, a detection probability of 90% is achieved with a false alarm probability of 6% in the presence of nuisances such as collisions and severe shadowing

Using the compensated heat pulse method to monitor trends in stem water content in standing trees

Studying the dynamics of stem water content (θ) in living trees has an outstanding physiological interest but all the available techniques to measure θ exhibit major drawbacks. In this work, we present a new methodology to estimate variations in θ along with sap velocity using the compensated heat pulse technique (CHP). One lab experiment was performed on several wooden blocks obtained from three different tree species. Samples were slowly dried and their moisture loss was monitored by both gravimetric approaches and time-domain reflectometry (TDR) or CHP probes in order to contrast the validity of our methodology (VSH-CHP) over a range of water contents. In addition, a field experiment was conducted to monitor θ fluctuations in standing olive trees (Olea europaea L. cv. ‘Arbequina’) growing under three different irrigation regimes. In the lab test, the actual θ values deduced gravimetrically differed from the estimates yielded by the VSH-CHP method. However, it could successfully track relative changes in the water stored for the range of θ expected in living wood. Furthermore, the field experiment showed a seasonal change in θ which was similar in shape and magnitude to those reported in the literature for olive and other Mediterranean tree species. On the other hand, differences in the seasonal patterns of θ between irrigation treatments strongly corresponded with those of sap flow and some leaf water potential measurements. The results of this work suggest that the CHP technique could be employed to monitor the dynamics of both θ and sap flow simultaneously in standing trees and evidence that seasonal changes in θ might be used as a long-term water status indicator

Spatial sap flow and xylem anatomical characteristics in olive trees under different irrigation regimes

The compensation heat pulse method (CHP) is widely used to estimate sap flow and transpiration in conducting organs of woody plants. Previous studies have reported a natural azimuthal variability in sap flow, which could have practical implications in locating the CHP probes and integrating their output. Sap flow of several olive trees (Olea europaea L. cv. `Arbequina´) previously grown under different irrigation treatments were monitored by the CHP method, and their xylem anatomical characteristics were analyzed from wood samples taken at the same location in which the probes were installed. A significant azimuthal variability in the sap flow was found in a well irrigated olive tree monitored by eight CHP probes. The azimuthal variability was well related to crown architecture, but poorly to azimuthal differences in the xylem anatomical characteristics. Well-irrigated and deficit-irrigated olive trees showed similar xylem anatomical characteristics, but they differed in xylem growth, and in the ratio of nocturnal to diurnal sap flow (N/D index). The results of this work indicate transpiration could not be accurately estimated by the CHP method in olive trees if a small number of sensors are employed, and that the N/D index could be used as a sensitive water status indicator

Synthesis and Optimal Operation of Smart Microgrids Serving a Cluster of Buildings on a Campus with Centralized and Distributed Hybrid Renewable Energy Units

Micro-district heating networks based on cogeneration plants and renewable energy technologies are considered efficient, viable and environmentally-friendly solutions to realizing smart multi-energy microgrids. Nonetheless, the energy production from renewable sources is intermittent and stochastic, and cogeneration units are characterized by fixed power-to-heat ratios, which are incompatible with fluctuating thermal and electric demands. These drawbacks can be partially overcome by smart operational controls that are capable of maximizing the energy system performance. Moreover, electrically driven heat pumps may add flexibility to the system, by shifting thermal loads into electric loads. In this paper, a novel configuration for smart multi-energy microgrids, which combines centralized and distributed energy units is proposed. A centralized cogeneration system, consisting of an internal combustion engine is connected to a micro-district heating network. Distributed electric heat pumps assist the thermal production at the building level, giving operational flexibility to the system and supporting the integration of renewable energy technologies, i.e., wind turbines, photovoltaic panels, and solar thermal collectors. The proposed configuration was tested in a hypothetical case study, namely, a University Campus located in Trieste, Italy. The system operation is based on a cost-optimal control strategy and the effect of the size of the cogeneration unit and heat pumps was investigated. A comparison with a conventional configuration, without distributed heat pumps, was also performed. The results show that the proposed configuration outperformed the conventional one, leading to a total-cost saving of around 8 %, a carbon emission reduction of 11 %, and a primary energy saving of 8 %

Star formation in clusters: early sub-clustering in the Serpens core

We present high resolution interferometric and single dish observations of molecular gas in the Serpens cluster-forming core. Star formation does not appear to be homogeneous throughout the core, but is localised in spatially- and kinematically-separated sub-clusters. The stellar (or proto-stellar) density in each of the sub-clusters is much higher than the mean for the entire Serpens cluster. This is the first observational evidence for the hierarchical fragmentation of proto-cluster cores suggested by cluster formation models.Comment: 11 pages, 3 Figures, ApJ Letters in pres

Pre- and post-harvest evapotranspiration, carbon exchange and water use efficiency of a mature peach orchard in semi-arid climate

Better knowledge of the evapotranspiration and carbon exchange of fruit trees is needed to optimize the trade-off between water use and carbon assimilation and to better understand the role of agriculture in the biogeochemical cycles. In this work we measured water and carbon fluxes with eddy covariance and transpiration with sap flow in a drip irrigated peach orchard of 70% ground cover located in southern Spain for two years. The empirically measured crop coefficient (Kc) under good watering conditions in the summer ranged from 1 to 1.1. The daytime Net Ecosystem Exchange (NEE) flux of the orchard averaged 30 g CO2 m2 day-1 during the period of maximum activity in July. The daytime ecosystem water use efficiency (WUE) of the orchard reached a minimum in late June, flattened around 4 g CO2 L-1 throughout the summer, and increased in autumn, but was unaffected by fruit removal or post-harvest irrigation reduction imposed by the farm (30% reduction). The response of instantaneous peach ecosystem WUE to VPD was also investigated. Both Kc, NEE, leaf water potential and stomatal conductance decreased sharply after harvest. Transpiration data from some purposely over-irrigated experimental trees demonstrated that the post-harvest alterations we found were not caused by fruit removal, but are result of mild water stress originated by the irrigation reduction. Hence, the often-observed alterations in water relations after harvest in well-watered trees were not observed in this experiment. This work adds insight on peach irrigation efficiency and on the contribution of orchards to agricultural carbon budgets

Dust Evolution in Protoplanetary Disks

(abridged) In the core accretion scenario for the formation of planetary rocky cores, the first step toward planet formation is the growth of dust grains into larger and larger aggregates and eventually planetesimals. Although dust grains are thought to grow from the submicron sizes typical of interstellar dust to micron size particles in the dense regions of molecular clouds and cores, the growth from micron size particles to pebbles and kilometre size bodies must occur in protoplanetary disks. This step in the formation of planetary systems is the last stage of solids evolution that can be observed directly in young extrasolar systems. In this chapter we review the constraints on the physics of grain-grain collisions as they have emerged from laboratory experiments and numerical computations. We then review the current theoretical understanding of the global processes governing the evolution of solids in protoplanetary disks, including dust settling, growth, and radial transport. The predicted observational signatures are summarized. We discuss recent developments in the study of grain growth in molecular cloud cores and in collapsing envelopes of protostars as these provide the initial conditions for the dust in disks. We discuss the observational evidence for the growth of grains in young disks from mm surveys, as well as the recent evidence of radial variations of the dust properties in disks. We include a brief discussion of the constraints on the small end of the grain size distribution and on dust settling as derived from optical and IR observations. The observations are discussed in the context of global dust evolution models, in particular we focus on the emerging evidence for a very efficient early growth of grains and the radial distribution of grain sizes in disks. We also highlight the limits of current models, including the need to slow the radial drift of grains.Comment: Accepted for publication as a chapter in Protostars and Planets VI, University of Arizona Press (2014), eds. H. Beuther, R. Klessen, C. Dullemond, Th. Hennin

Studying and modelling winter dormancy in olive trees

The abundance of scientific papers dealing with olive reproductive phenology contrasts with the scarce information available in relation to the winter dormant state of olive vegetative structures. In this study, three experiments with young olive trees were performed in Southern Spain, aiming to provide insight into some features of the winter rest period in this evergreen species. Experiment 1 evaluated the environmental cues triggering dormancy induction by measuring leaf appearance rates in trees subjected to different conditions of temperature and daylength over the course of the 2012 autumn. In Experiment 2, several sets of plants were placed into a greenhouse at different dates along the 2013/2014 winter, testing the ability of dormant plants to resume growth upon the return of favourable temperatures. Finally, Experiment 3 was carried out during the autumns of 2016 and 2017 in two locations, and was devoted to assess differences between five cultivars in the onset of dormancy under natural conditions. Our findings revealed that dormancy induction is not controlled by photoperiod, but by low temperatures. The subsequent winter rest state seems to be easily reversed after 1–2 weeks of exposure to warm conditions, irrespective of the initial date of exposure. With regard to cultivar variability, differences in the timing of growth cessation was found to be rather small. Finally, two simple models for predicting the onset of dormancy based on the accumulation of a certain amount of chilling (either considering or not a reversal of chilling by warm temperatures) are presented. Calibration and validation was performed with independent datasets from Experiments 1, 2 and 3. Validation tests highlighted the reliability of both models in reproducing the date of growth cessation