Improving Implementation of Formative Continuous Assessment at College of Agriculture, Wolaita Sodo University, Ethiopia

Ethiopian Ministry of Education has designed different types of curriculums from elementary to higher educational levels, and policies how students should be evaluated for best grade score and/or to produce skilled human resources, but teachers evaluation system does not yet fully address the policy. The aim of this study was to evaluate teachers’ and students’ attitude towards formative continuous assessment and to take an action to raise their attitude. Twenty one lecturers and one hundred five second year students from all seven departments under College of Agriculture were selected as respondents. For the purpose of evaluating teachers’ and students’ attitude towards formative continuous assessment, 12-item question (both before and after interventions) on a Likert Scale was given. Accordingly, the overall percentage of incorrect answers were accounted 64% from teachers and 66% from students, which implies that more than half of the respondents have negative attitude towards formative continuous assessment and its implementation. Lack of awareness and positive attitude towards formative continuous assessment, inadequate teaching-learning facilities, large number of students per class, lack of motivation, lack of smooth relationship between students and teachers were some of the common issues that were reflected as factors which affects formative continuous assessment implementation during focus group discussions. Based on the results from the initial questions and focus group discussions, a refresher and awareness training was given to both teachers and students to raise their attitude. After all the actions, 12-item questions (exactly the same as the initial questions) were given again to the same size of respondents. For this reason, the overall percentage of correct answers were 66% from teachers and 68% from students, which showed that majority of the teachers and students have positive attitude towards formative continuous assessment and its implementation. Keywords: Attitude, formative continuous assessment, intervention, Wolaita Sodo University

Challenges and Opportunities of Small-Scale Irrigation Utilization in Rift Valley Basin, Humbo Woreda, Ethiopia

Ethiopia has abundant water resources, but its agricultural system does not yet fully benefit from the technologies of water management and irrigation. This study was conducted with the aim of assessing opportunities and constraints towards utilization of small-scale irrigation by smallholder farmers’ and to assess the organizational set-up of water users association in the study area. In this study multi-stage sampling techniques were used to select 150 target respondents in which 90 irrigation users and 60 non-irrigation users. To collect the required data several methods like interview schedule, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were used. From focus group discussions and key informant interviews, different challenges and opportunities were forwarded and underlined by the participants regarding with household’s participation decision on small-scale irrigation. The overall opportunities for the development and management of irrigation water are the availability of high surface water potential, good motivation and willingness of irrigation users to attend scientific trainings and high commitment of the Ethiopia government, donors and NGOs to support irrigation management and development activity. While different constraints were also forwarded related with poor technology choice, too small landholdings, conflicts in water use and use rights, lack of market information and access, lack of training on irrigation technologies, lack of irrigation structure maintenance, poor linkage between research and extension services, poor infrastructures such as roads, lack of adequate credit service and extension packages. Regarding to the organizational set-up of water users association, the general assembly is the highest body in water users’ association committee which makes the final decisions based on the bylaws. The composition of the general assembly from all irrigation schemes has chairman, secretary, auditors, operation and maintenance committees. An Executive Committee consists of seven members for overall operation and maintenance of irrigation systems. The executive committees were further decentralized in to three branches. These sub-executive committees comprising two members in each were in charge of control water distribution and coordination of maintenance activities and conflict resolutions. Therefore, to alleviate these constraints and utilize the opportunities towards small-scale irrigation, the concerned bodies should attempt to minimize those factors that hinder productivity of irrigation water in the study area. Keywords: Challenges, Opportunities, Rift Valley Basin, Water users association

Factors Affecting Family Planning Information Utilization by Rural Households: The Case of Dugda Woreda, East Shewa, Ethiopia

High fertility and rapid population growth have an impact on the overall socio-economic development of a country in general and maternal and child health in particular. Ethiopia is among the developing countries where the rate of population growth is one of the highest and contraceptive prevalence rate is the lowest. The practice of family planning and its possible determinants have hardly been explored in rural parts of the country. Thus, the objectives of the study were to assess the level of family planning information utilization by the rural households in the study area and to identify factors that determine the utilization of family planning information (FPI). The study was conducted in Dugda Woreda, East Shewa Zone of Central Ethiopia where the population growth rate (2.8) is more than the national average (2.6). Dugda Woreda was purposively selected and a total of 120 sample couples were randomly selected from 4 kebeles, and interview schedule was used to collect primary data. Focus groups’ discussions were held to support the survey data. Data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics and binary logit model. From the total sampled couples, 46.6% were users of family planning at the time of the survey while the remaining 53.3% were non users. The result of binary logistic regression model analysis showed that among the 17 explanatory variables entered into the model, nine of them were found to be significant at less than 10% probability level. Targeting the identified factors, and making policy and development interventions can promote the level of utilization of family planning among rural women in the study area. Therefore, policy makers and family planning service providers should give attention to factors that significantly influence family planning information utilization through emphasizing women education, health counseling, making suitable timing and duration of mass media programs. Keywords: family planning, determinants, Dugda woreda, rural household

Socio-Economic Determinants of Credit Service Utilization by Smallholder Households at Wolaita Zone, Ethiopia

The objective of the study was to identify the determinants of credit service utilization in the study area. In this study multi-stage sampling techniques were used to select 5 kebeles out of 42 kebeles of the study area and 150 sample households were randomly selected, of which 82 were credit users and 68 of them were non-users. Primary data were collected through structured interview schedule. Various documents were reviewed to collect the secondary data. In the study Econometric model (binary logit model) was used to identify the determinants of credit service utilization. A total of fifteen explanatory variables were included in the model. Out of these, seven were found to be statistically significant and most of the coefficients of these variables exhibited the expected signs with the hypothesis. These variables include total income, saving habit, collateral type, training and technical advice, possession of fixed assets, risk fearing and lending procedure. Therefore, credit service providers should give attention to factors that significantly influence credit service utilization in order to improve the performance of microfinance service provision and credit service utilization. Keywords: Credit, binary logistic regression model, Determinants, Credit Utilization, Smallholder Households, Wolaita Zone  

Analysis of Credit Service Utilization by Rural Households: The Case of Humbo Woreda, Wolaita Zone, Ethiopia

The objectives of the study were to analyze credit service utilization by rural households and to assess the prevailing challenges faced by microfinance institutions in the provision of credit service in the study area. In this study multi-stage sampling techniques were used to select 5 kebeles out of 42 kebeles of the study area and 150 sample households were randomly selected, of which 82 were credit users and 68 of them were non-users. Primary data were collected through structured and semi- structured interview schedule, Key Informant Interviews and Focus Group-Discussions. Various documents were reviewed to collect secondary data. To analyze the data, descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, percentage, and frequency distribution were used to describe the institutional, socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the sample households. In addition, t-tests and chi-square tests were used to compare credit user and non-user sample groups with respect to the explanatory variables. Socio-economic factors such as income, possession of fixed asset, risk fearing, saving habit and opinion on group lending had showed significant relationship with credit service utilization. In addition to this, institutional factors like lending procedure, type of collateral required, and training and technical advice had showed significant relationship with credit service utilization. Therefore, credit service providers should give attention to factors that significantly influence credit service utilization by rural households, focus to institutional capacity building, implementing a working and effective follow-up system, and designing human resource development plan need to be implemented by the concerned authorities to improve the performance of microfinance service provision and credit service utilization. Keywords: Credit Service, Rural Households, Credit Utilization, Microfinanc

Analysis of Credit Service Utilization by Rural Households: The Case of Humbo Woreda, Wolaita Zone, Ethiopia

The objectives of the study were to analyze credit service utilization by rural households and to assess the prevailing challenges faced by microfinance institutions in the provision of credit service in the study area. In this study multi-stage sampling techniques were used to select 5 kebeles out of 42 kebeles of the study area and 150 sample households were randomly selected, of which 82 were credit users and 68 of them were non-users. Primary data were collected through structured and semi- structured interview schedule, Key Informant Interviews and Focus Group-Discussions. Various documents were reviewed to collect secondary data. To analyze the data, descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, percentage, and frequency distribution were used to describe the institutional, socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the sample households. In addition, t-tests and chi-square tests were used to compare credit user and non-user sample groups with respect to the explanatory variables. Socio-economic factors such as income, possession of fixed asset, risk fearing, saving habit and opinion on group lending had showed significant relationship with credit service utilization. In addition to this, institutional factors like lending procedure, type of collateral required, and training and technical advice had showed significant relationship with credit service utilization. Therefore, credit service providers should give attention to factors that significantly influence credit service utilization by rural households, focus to institutional capacity building, implementing a working and effective follow-up system, and designing human resource development plan need to be implemented by the concerned authorities to improve the performance of microfinance service provision and credit service utilization. Keywords: Credit Service, Rural Households, Credit Utilization, Microfinanc

On-Farm Activities and Households Food Security in Wolaita Zone, Ethiopia

Objectives of the study were to measure status of household food security, to measure the severity levels of household food insecurity, and to analyze factors affecting on-farm activities. In the study multi-stage sampling techniques were used to select 5 kebeles and 140 sample households out of 23 kebeles of the study area. Primary data were collected through structured interview schedule, key informants interview, focus group-discussions and direct observation. Various documents were also reviewed to collect the secondary data. The quantitative data were analyzed by descriptive statistics and qualitative data were analyzed through generalization summarization and categorization. Household food security was measured using calorie consumption method. A binary logit model was used to analyze factors affecting on-farm activities. The findings of the study revealed that about 57% of the rural households were food insecure and 43% were food secure. A total of eleven explanatory variables were included in the model from which seven variables showed a significant effect on household food security.  The estimated model correctly predicted 92.1% of the total sample households. To estimate the extent of food insecurity FGT index was used. Accordingly, the incidence of food insecurity, food insecurity gap and severity of food insecurity were found to be 57%, 24% and 11.67%, respectively. Keywords: Food security, on-farm activities, binary logistic regression model, incidence of food insecurity, food insecurity gap, severity of food insecurity, FGT index

Male Involvement in Family Planning Services

Family planning is the ability of individuals and couples to anticipate and obtain their preferred number of children, spacing, and timing of births. It is accomplished through the use of contraceptive methods and the treatment of involuntary infertility. Family planning is important for the well-being of women and their families, and it can help a country reduce poverty and achieve the SDGs faster. When family planning methods are used effectively, they assist couples in having the number of children they desire, improve maternal and child health, which may assist women in avoiding unintended pregnancies, and lower risk factors for maternal and child mortality. Increasing the use of condoms and vasectomies among men is only one aspect of male involvement in family planning. It also includes the number of men who support and encourage their partners and peers to use family planning, as well as the number of men who influence policy to make it more favorable to promoting male-related programs. Men’s participation is critical to women’s health and program completion, as it promotes shared responsibility for birth control, contraceptive reputation, and thus the women are more likely to adopt and continue using beginning prevention if their partner’s active assistance

Global age-sex-specific mortality, life expectancy, and population estimates in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1950–2021, and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic: a comprehensive demographic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021

Background: Estimates of demographic metrics are crucial to assess levels and trends of population health outcomes. The profound impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on populations worldwide has underscored the need for timely estimates to understand this unprecedented event within the context of long-term population health trends. The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2021 provides new demographic estimates for 204 countries and territories and 811 additional subnational locations from 1950 to 2021, with a particular emphasis on changes in mortality and life expectancy that occurred during the 2020–21 COVID-19 pandemic period. Methods: 22 223 data sources from vital registration, sample registration, surveys, censuses, and other sources were used to estimate mortality, with a subset of these sources used exclusively to estimate excess mortality due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2026 data sources were used for population estimation. Additional sources were used to estimate migration; the effects of the HIV epidemic; and demographic discontinuities due to conflicts, famines, natural disasters, and pandemics, which are used as inputs for estimating mortality and population. Spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression (ST-GPR) was used to generate under-5 mortality rates, which synthesised 30 763 location-years of vital registration and sample registration data, 1365 surveys and censuses, and 80 other sources. ST-GPR was also used to estimate adult mortality (between ages 15 and 59 years) based on information from 31 642 location-years of vital registration and sample registration data, 355 surveys and censuses, and 24 other sources. Estimates of child and adult mortality rates were then used to generate life tables with a relational model life table system. For countries with large HIV epidemics, life tables were adjusted using independent estimates of HIV-specific mortality generated via an epidemiological analysis of HIV prevalence surveys, antenatal clinic serosurveillance, and other data sources. Excess mortality due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021 was determined by subtracting observed all-cause mortality (adjusted for late registration and mortality anomalies) from the mortality expected in the absence of the pandemic. Expected mortality was calculated based on historical trends using an ensemble of models. In location-years where all-cause mortality data were unavailable, we estimated excess mortality rates using a regression model with covariates pertaining to the pandemic. Population size was computed using a Bayesian hierarchical cohort component model. Life expectancy was calculated using age-specific mortality rates and standard demographic methods. Uncertainty intervals (UIs) were calculated for every metric using the 25th and 975th ordered values from a 1000-draw posterior distribution. Findings: Global all-cause mortality followed two distinct patterns over the study period: age-standardised mortality rates declined between 1950 and 2019 (a 62·8% [95% UI 60·5–65·1] decline), and increased during the COVID-19 pandemic period (2020–21; 5·1% [0·9–9·6] increase). In contrast with the overall reverse in mortality trends during the pandemic period, child mortality continued to decline, with 4·66 million (3·98–5·50) global deaths in children younger than 5 years in 2021 compared with 5·21 million (4·50–6·01) in 2019. An estimated 131 million (126–137) people died globally from all causes in 2020 and 2021 combined, of which 15·9 million (14·7–17·2) were due to the COVID-19 pandemic (measured by excess mortality, which includes deaths directly due to SARS-CoV-2 infection and those indirectly due to other social, economic, or behavioural changes associated with the pandemic). Excess mortality rates exceeded 150 deaths per 100 000 population during at least one year of the pandemic in 80 countries and territories, whereas 20 nations had a negative excess mortality rate in 2020 or 2021, indicating that all-cause mortality in these countries was lower during the pandemic than expected based on historical trends. Between 1950 and 2021, global life expectancy at birth increased by 22·7 years (20·8–24·8), from 49·0 years (46·7–51·3) to 71·7 years (70·9–72·5). Global life expectancy at birth declined by 1·6 years (1·0–2·2) between 2019 and 2021, reversing historical trends. An increase in life expectancy was only observed in 32 (15·7%) of 204 countries and territories between 2019 and 2021. The global population reached 7·89 billion (7·67–8·13) people in 2021, by which time 56 of 204 countries and territories had peaked and subsequently populations have declined. The largest proportion of population growth between 2020 and 2021 was in sub-Saharan Africa (39·5% [28·4–52·7]) and south Asia (26·3% [9·0–44·7]). From 2000 to 2021, the ratio of the population aged 65 years and older to the population aged younger than 15 years increased in 188 (92·2%) of 204 nations. Interpretation: Global adult mortality rates markedly increased during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021, reversing past decreasing trends, while child mortality rates continued to decline, albeit more slowly than in earlier years. Although COVID-19 had a substantial impact on many demographic indicators during the first 2 years of the pandemic, overall global health progress over the 72 years evaluated has been profound, with considerable improvements in mortality and life expectancy. Additionally, we observed a deceleration of global population growth since 2017, despite steady or increasing growth in lower-income countries, combined with a continued global shift of population age structures towards older ages. These demographic changes will likely present future challenges to health systems, economies, and societies. The comprehensive demographic estimates reported here will enable researchers, policy makers, health practitioners, and other key stakeholders to better understand and address the profound changes that have occurred in the global health landscape following the first 2 years of the COVID-19 pandemic, and longer-term trends beyond the pandemic