Climate change and forestry in Turkey: impacts and adaptation measures

Turkey has various climate types in different regions. A Mediterranean climate prevails in Turkey’s Mediterranean and Western Anatolian regions, a temperate climate with high precipitation in every season along the Black Sea coast, a continental climate in the inland regions and a semi-arid climate in Central and South-eastern Anatolia. Most precipitation occurs in the winter months. Total annual rainfall is least in the low-lying areas of eastern Anatolia (220mm), and highest along the eastern Black Sea coast (2420mm). The average annual rainfall for the entire country is 643 mm, generating a water potential of 501 billions m3/year. Turkey has about 21.3 million hectares of forest area that covers around 27.2% of the country’s land area. Half of the total forest area is high forests and the remaining is coppices. Forests are generally located on mountainous areas and they are usually natural and semi-natural with high biodiversity values. It is expected that climate change will seriously affect Turkeys’ forests. Dalfes at al. (2007) analyzed the climate data from 113 stations of the State Meteorological Service in Turkey for the period between the years 1951-2004 and they observed that winter precipitation in western Turkey has decreased significantly whereas autumn precipitation has increased at stations in the northern parts of central Anatolia. The reason behind these changes is not well understood, and the need for more comprehensive study is underlined. The authors report widespread increase in summer temperatures mostly in the western and southwestern parts of Turkey while winter temperatures show a general tendency to decrease. The more significant changes are concentrated in coastal stations. Stream flow data based on measurements from 1969 to 1998 indicate a decreasing trend in western and southwestern regions and some increase in the north

Application of soil water assessment tool (SWAT) to suppress wildfire at Bayam Forest, Turkey

Authors would like to thank the Central Finance and Contracts Unit (CFCU) in TURKEY and the EU INTERREG IV "Black Sea Basin Joint Operational Programme 2007-2013" framework that funded this project. In addition. we would like the staff members of the Kastamonu Regional Directorate of Forestry. Yasar Cakiroglu, Muzaffer Buyukterzi and Hidayet Kavi for their generous help and support.Aim: Readily available water resources are a key for wildfire suppression. Hydrologic models are a practical and essential tool for understanding the processes of hydrology and managing water resources, but have not been utilized as frequently for wildfire suppression. The goal of the present study was to use the Soil WaterAssessment Tools (SWAT) model to determine whether the stream water could be managed sustainably in wildfire suppression at the Bayam Forest District in Kastamonu Province, Turkey. Methodology: As an input file, the SWAT model used soils, land-uses, weather data and morphology of watershed based on the Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The model was applied for period 2001-2013 in order to predict the water budget of the study area and major streams within the studied district. Results: The analysis of the hydrologic water budget indicated that 70% (573.8 mm) of the annual precipitation (822 mm) was lost as evapotranspiration in the basin, whereas 19%, 34% and 47% of the remaining total water yield (234.6 mm) contributed to streams via surface runoff, groundwater flow and lateral flow, respectively. Interpretation: Overall, the result of SWAT model indicated to a certain degree promising findings on the availability of stream water and optimal placement of water reservoir for the use of wildfire suppression

Evaluation of Artvin-Murgul black locust plantations in terms of biomass production, carbon storage, soil quality improvement and erosion control compared to adjacent grassland areas

Black locust plantations in Artvin-Murgul (established in 1996) were investigated for the purposes of: 1) wood production, 2) above- and belowground biomass, 3) carbon storage, 4) soil quality improvement, 5) erosion control and economic value. For these purposes, soil samples were taken from black locust plantation sites and adjacent grassland (control) sites, and soil respiration, soil infiltration, surface runoff, sediment removal, water holding capacity, soil organic matter, texture, pH, N, P, K, Ca, and Mg contents were determined in both areas. Sample trees were cut to determine aboveground biomass and carbon storage. Root samples were taken to determine root biomass and root carbon storage. Surface runoff and erosion were five-fold lower in black locust stands compared to controls (grasslands). Soil quality improvements in black locust areas were not significantly higher than in grasslands. Grasslands had higher soil respiration rates compared to black locust areas. Soil organic matter did not differ significantly between grasslands and black locust areas. Above- and belowground carbon storage were higher in black locust areas than in grassland

Riparian land-use ımpacts on stream bank and gully erosion in agricultural watersheds: what we have learned

Stream bank and gully erosion are major sources of nonpoint source pollutants, especially in landscapes dominated by agriculture. Implementation of upland conservation practices in landscapes dominated by agriculture reduces upland sediment transport more than water runoff, leading to excessive stream bank and gully erosion. This review focus on ten different studies conducted in streams in Iowa that investigated riparian land-use impacts on stream banks, gullies, and other riparian sediment sources (cattle loafing areas and cattle stream access points). The riparian land-uses investigated were riparian forest buffers; grass filters; continuous, rotational, and intensive rotational pastures; pastures with cattle fenced out of the stream; and row-cropped fields. Results of these studies indicate that maintaining perennial deep-rooted vegetation in riparian areas and excluding cattle from the stream channel stabilizes stream banks and gullies. Cattle loafing areas and cattle stream access points appear to also be important sediment sources. Re-establishing perennial riparian vegetation is a sustainable and cost-effective conservation practice because it reduces sediment in streams while maintaining the majority of the watershed in agricultural production. The limited available funds for the implementation of holistic watershed conservation practices suggest using targeted approaches, at the watershed scale, to improve conservation practice effectiveness

High stage events and stream bank erosion on small grazed pasture stream reaches in the rathbun lake watershed, southern IOWA, USA

Stream bank erosion in agricultural landscapes is a major pathway for non-point source sediment and phosphorus loading of receiving waters. Previous studies have shown direct and indirect effects of land use on stream bank erosion, and identified high erosion rates within riparian pastures. One potential impact of agricultural land-use on stream bank erosion is the alteration of stream stage characteristics, including an increase in frequency of high-stage events over short periods of time (forming flash hydrographs). The objective of this study was to assess the relationship between the number of high stream stages and corresponding stream bank soil erosion. The study was conducted in six grazed pasture stream reaches within the Rathbun Lake Watershed, a reservoir on the Chariton River located within the Southern Iowa Drift Plain. The erosion pin method was utilized to measure the change in stream bank erosion in response to differences in the number of high stream-stage events, which were monitored by pressure transducers. The measured seasonal bank erosion rates were correlated with the different stream stages data to assess their impact on stream bank erosion. Based on the different model assumptions, there were generally strong linear relationships between high stage and bank erosion. Approximately 75% of the variability in stream bank erosion rates was directly linked to the number of high stages/erosive stream flow depths. Conservation practices that reduce these erosion rates will be those that increase soil-water infiltration, reduce the frequency of high stream flow events and increase bank stability through perennial vegetation cover or reducing disturbance within the riparian zone

The investigation of forest fire on soil respiration

We investigated the effect of forest fire disturbance on soil respiration. This study was conducted in Vezirkopru Forest area of Samsun Province, Turkey. We made measurements of soil respiration, soil moisture and soil temperature in the 80 to 100 years old larch stand by controlled burning. Measurements were made between November, 2013 and October, 2014. As a result of the measurement of soil respiration; was found statistically significant effect on soil moisture and soil temperature by time. There were not significant differences between fire and control area with regard to variables of fire intensity and slope (P> 0.05). In general, soil respiration had negative relationship with soil moisture and positive relationship with soil temperature (P <0.05). Soil respiration increases depending on the fire intensity. Soil respiration ranged from 2.63 to 0.94 g C m-2 gün-1

Innovative and sustainable use of stream water to suppress fires in protected areas: overview of the streams-2-suppress-fires project

Establishing protected areas to maintain biodiversity is a priority worldwide. Protected areas can have minimal management practices that can lead to the intensive accumulation of fire fuel. Fires are major threats for all protected areas that cause irreversible damages to them or impacts that last for decades or even centuries. The impending climate change impacts will increase the potential of large fires even in regions with minimal fires in the past. The emphasis of this project is in the Black Sea region with six pilot areas in six different countries. The first action involves the establishment of a Neighborhood Network regarding fire suppression around the region. The network includes institutions that are responsible for mitigating forest fires and managing protected areas from the Black Sea region. Another important action taken is to understand the fire behavior and locating the areas with the greatest fire risk. When considering fire suppression it is essential to know the available water resources (stream water). Since fires occur during the summer, the runoff and stream flow during this period needs to be accurately predicted. Based on the fire behavior and water resources data, the number, dimensions of the reservoirs required to suppress forest fires will be estimated for the pilot areas. Finally, specialized software will provide the optimal locations of the reservoirs and the best routes for the fire vehicles to reach the reservoirs. Overall the use of innovative mechanisms will lead to the more cost-effective management that will allow the sustainable development and protection of natural protected areas

Perspectives on protected area and wildfire management in the Black Sea region

Protected areas are necessary for the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity. Wildfires are major threats to forests and other natural areas, because they may cause irreversible damages. The aim of this study was to analyze the perspective of experts (N = 284), from six countries of the Black Sea, on the current status and problems of protected areas and wildfires. Understanding their points of view could enhance future management on these issues in the region. Data collection was carried out for 9 months, using a web-based questionnaire. Wildfires were perceived as a serious problem in Turkey, Armenia and Greece but as a substantially less serious problem in Romania, Ukraine and Moldova. In Greece, Armenia, and especially Ukraine, the current designated protected areas are considered sufficient to maintain biodiversity, while in Romania, Turkey, and especially Moldova, more areas should be designated as protected. A major need in all countries (except for Turkey) is the increased use of information and communication technologies for both wildfire suppression and protected area management. Experts were divided on whether wildfire suppression and management of protected areas are interconnected. However, there is growing awareness of the adverse impacts of climate change in protected areas and the frequency of wildfires in the future. The most frequently suggested measures to alleviate these impacts were: changes in forest management and increasing public awareness for wildfire suppression, along with changes in forest management and increased staff training to enhance protected area conservation.EU INTERREG IV "Black Sea Basin Joint Operational Programme 2007-2013" framework, Black Sea Basin Programme, European Union (EU)

Changes and interactions in forest soils after fire

Influences of forest fires on soils could be both positive and negative depending on the type of the properties of soil while they burn all plant cover in aboveground. Fires impose negative effects on soil organic matter, N content, cation exchange capacity, soil respiration and soil microbial activity when fuel load and fire severity are high. But these negative impacts repair in two-three years depending on fire severity. On the other hand, soil pH, Ca, Mg, P and K contents are positively affected properties of soil from fires. Surface fires can be successfully used as a tool in natural regeneration studies in Mediterranean forests where thick surface litter prevents regeneration

Gully and streambank erosion and the effectiveness of control measures in a semi-arid watershed

Quantifying the sedimentation contributed by different erosion pathways, including rill, interrill, and gully and streambank soil losses at the watershed scale is crucial to know for adopting the best management practices to reduce soil erosion and reservoir siltation. This study had two goals: (1) To quantify streambank and gully erosion along two stream orders (1st and 2nd) or stream types (perennial and intermittent channels) of the Oltu sub-watershed within the Coruh River Basin in northeastern Turkey, and (2) To assess the effects of rehabilitation efforts on headwater ephemeral channels by using dry-stone and wire-cage sills. The 2-year measurements of gully and streambank erosion rates were carried out using the "erosion pin method". The total gully and streambank areas, the lengths of stream networks, bank soil bulk densities, and erosion rates were all measured to calculate total soil losses via the stream bank and gully erosion processes. Following the stream classification system, the total stream bank soil loss rates from the 2nd order stream (i.e., main channel), 1 S' order streams, and the gullies in the Oltu sub-watershed respectively ranged from 0 to 29, 48.3 to 286.5, and 3 to 237.8 t km(-1) y(-1). Within the channel network of the Oltu watershed, the contribution by gull erosion was the highest, at 18889 t y(-1) (73%), following by 1st order at 5995 t y(-1) (23%), while the 2nd order stream had the lowest contribution, at 867 t y(-1) (3%). Soil loss from the stream channels was also estimated for the total watershed at 0.7 t ha(-1) y(-1). These low rates of erosion from the gully and stream channels indicated that the dominant pathway of soil loss in the studied watershed is via rill and interrill erosion. However, long-term research is needed to monitor the event-based gully and streambank erosion under the wet conditions with intense rainfall to better understand their temporal effects. Finally, sill structures were found to be very effective at capturing the sediment and reducing the soil transport capacity from the upland areas and/or headwaters to downstream areas, and eventually the reservoirs.This study was supported by the Coruh River Watershed Rehabilitation project (2012-2019) in a consortium with the Turkish General Directorate of Forestry and the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA). I would like to thank following professors for their helpful input: Dr. George Zaimes, Dr. Aydin Tufekcioglu, and Dr. Mehmet Yavuz. I am also grateful to Dr. Musa Dinc, Dr. Ahmet Duman, Cengizhan Yildirim, and Canan Harsit Acikgoz for their help with the data collection