What's cooking in the Indus Civilisation? Investigating Indus food through ceramic lipid residue analysis

This thesis investigates which products were used in ceramic vessels by populations of the Indus Civilisation through ceramic lipid residue analysis. It uses concepts of food choice and foodways to explore the culinary practices of Indus populations. Specifically, the thesis examines how vessels may have been used in urban and rural Indus settlements located in northwest India during the urban period (c. 2600/2500-1900 BC), and identifies whether changes in vessel use occurred in the post-urban period (c. 1900- 1300 BC). It also analyses a small sample of Arabian and Indus-origin vessels from the Umm an-Nar period (c. 2400-2000 BC) in the Sultanate of Oman. As the first large-scale investigation into Indus foodstuff and vessel-use using lipid residue analysis, the thesis first tests the viability of the method in the South Asian context. It compares lipid yields from pottery recovered from collections, washed pottery from recent excavations, and unwashed pottery from fresh excavations. It then integrates the molecular and compound-specific isotopic data with available bioarchaeological evidence from the study region to reconstruct which products were used in vessels at different sites. The results indicate that overall, lipid residues are typically poorly preserved in Indus vessels, but the acidified methanol extraction technique provides a good lipid recovery rate. No significant differences in lipid yield are observable between washed pottery samples and those collected directly from the field, which suggests that washed pottery may serve as a good source for samples for future lipid residue analysis. However, it is difficult to interpret lipid evidence from samples obtained from collections with limited contextual information, suggesting that future lipid analyses in South Asia must be carefully planned to yield optimum results. The molecular results indicate that animal fats were primarily used in vessels, with minor indications of plant products. The compound-specific results suggest processing of different animal fats, primarily non-ruminants, however, equivocally, many vessels may also have been used to store or process mixtures of products. Inter-site differences in vessel use are observed, but there are broad similarities in vessel-use between urban and rural sites. No change over time in vessel use is observed at rural sites, suggesting stability of food choices. No correlations are observed between vessel-form and products used in vessels, indicating their multifunctionality. These results provide a new means by which to investigate Indus foodways, broadening our understanding of what ancient Indus cuisine at both urban and rural settlements may have looked like.Financial support for my PhD came from Cambridge Trust and Nehru Trust for Cambridge University. A very special thanks to Dr Anil Seal for his support. Parts of this research were carried out as part of the TwoRains project (http://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/two-rains), which is funded by a Horizon 2020 European Research Council (ERC) Consolidator Grant (H2020, 648609), and is based in the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research at the University of Cambridge. TwoRains is being carried out in collaboration with Prof. Ravindra Nath Singh and the Department of AIHC and Archaeology at Banaras Hindu University. Funding was also obtained from Sidney Sussex College, Anthony Wilkin Trust, Smuts Memorial Fund and McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research for research and travel

Tracing culinary practices in the western provinces of the Roman Empire using Organic Residue Analysis

This study aims at reconstructing foodways in the north-east (NE) of the Iberian Peninsula, focusing on lipid residue analysis of utilitarian vessels and using as case studies the sites of Puig Castellar of Biosca (180–120 BCE) and Guissona (120 BCE-third century CE). In total, fifty vessel fragments of different types and origins were analysed with techniques such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography-combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS). As some vessel fragments were recovered from waterlogged contexts, they had excellent lipid preservation, which enabled the detection of various compounds that are rarely reported in archaeological contexts in Iberia. Analyses revealed both animal and plant products in the vessels, suggested that a variety of food resources was consumed, and that vessels had multiple uses. The detection of levoglucosan in some extracts, along with other heat markers, further suggested the presence of cellulose or starchy products in contact with fire as well as the heating of animal fats. Combined with available bioarchaeological and palaeoenvironmental studies from both sites, the analyses indicated a continuity in diet across the time periods during which the sites were occupied. Some differences were also observed, including the possible use of tubers until the first century CE. The results are then contextualised and compared with other available organic residue studies from the Roman Iberian Peninsula. The study demonstrates how the combination of multiple bioarchaeological proxies and biomolecular approaches can provide a holistic means to approach Roman foodways

Faire gras à Molène: dairy products and ruminant fats detected by lipid and isotopic analysis of pottery dating to the Final Neolithic-Early Bronze Age from the island site of Beg ar Loued (Molène, western Brittany, France): Faire gras à Molène : produits laitiers et graisses de ruminants détectés par l’analyse lipidique et isotopique des céramiques du Néolithique final et de l’âge du Bronze ancien du site insulaire de Beg ar Loued (Molène, Bretagne occidentale, France)

The subsistence strategies of early farming communities have been highlighted since the beginning of the Neolithic, thanks to numerous studies on lipid residues from ceramic vessels conducted in various parts of continental Europe. However, after the Early Neolithic, evidence of subsistence strategies along the northern Atlantic coast are still lacking, especially for island contexts. This paper presents the results of lipid residue analysis of 129 potsherds from Beg ar Loued (Molène, France), an island site dating primarily to the Early Bronze Age (c. 2700-2600 to 1800 BCE). Aiming to understand the use of vessels, vessel treatment and culinary practices on the settlement, analyses of visible charred residues, sherds and ceramic surfaces/coating layers were carried out using chromatographic (n = 174) and isotopic techniques (n = 24) after lipid extraction by solvent (n = 174) or acid methanolysis (n = 31). The results demonstrate the extensive use of terrestrial products (ruminant carcass and dairy) in pottery, including occasional plant products (with possible mixtures of different waxes), while the detection of aquatic products is limited. Thus, combined with evidence from faunal remains at the site, the results indicate that terrestrial resources like ruminant meat and dairy products were preferentially processed in vessels, and aquatic products mostly without the use of ceramics. These findings demonstrate the significance of lipid residue analysis for studying the role of pottery in food production and consumption at sites along the Atlantic coast. Les stratégies de subsistance des premières communautés agricoles ont été mises en évidence depuis le début du Néolithique grâce à de nombreuses études sur les résidus lipidiques des récipients en céramique menées dans diverses parties de l’Europe continentale. En revanche, très peu de données sont disponibles pour la fin du Néolithique et le début de l’âge du Bronze sur la côte atlantique, en particulier en contexte insulaire. Cet article présente les résultats de l’analyse de résidus lipidiques provenant de 129 fragments de poteries de Beg ar Loued (Molène, France), un site insulaire dont les principaux vestiges datent de l’âge du Bronze ancien (c. 2700-2600 à 1800 BCE). Dans le but de comprendre l’utilisation des récipients, les pratiques culinaires sur ce site et d’appréhender les techniques de finition des céramiques, des analyses de résidus visibles carbonisés, de tessons, et de surfaces/couches d’engobe ont été effectuées via des analyses chromatographiques (n = 174) et isotopiques (n = 24), après extraction des lipides par solvant (n = 174) ou méthanolyse acide (n = 31). Les résultats démontrent l’utilisation extensive de produits terrestres (carcasses de ruminants et produits laitiers), comprenant occasionnellement des produits végétaux (avec un mélange probable de différentes cires), alors que la détection des produits aquatiques est faible. Comparés aux données fauniques, ces résultats indiquent donc que les produits terrestres, tels que la viande de ruminant et les produits laitiers, sont transformés en utilisant des récipients en céramiques, tandis que les produits aquatiques semblent de préférence exploités sans avoir recours à une poterie. Ces résultats démontrent l’importance de l’analyse des résidus lipidiques pour connaître le rôle des récipients en céramique dans la production et la consommation d’aliments sur les sites de la côte atlantique

Data supporting PhD thesis, "What's cooking in the Indus Civilisation? Investigating Indus food through ceramic lipid residue analysis"

These data files supplement the analyses conducted as part of my PhD research entitled 'What’s cooking in the Indus Civilisation? Investigating Indus food through ceramic lipid residue analysis' (2019).This thesis investigates which products were processed in ceramic vessels used by populations of the Indus Civilisation, South Asia’s first urban civilisation. It examines vessel-usage in urban and rural Indus settlements located in northwest India during the urban period (c. 2600/2500–1900 B.C.), and identifies whether changes in vessel-use occurred in the post-urban period (c. 1900–1300 B.C.) by using lipid residue analysis. The following data has uploaded in the repository: 1) Images of chromatograms obtained 2) GC-c-IRMS data calibration and corrections 3) Data files to run R code 4) R code for all visualisations and statistical analyses (to be opened in R) For original GC-MS data of lipid extracts from Indus vessels, please contact the author (files can only be opened with Agilent ChemStation or Masshunter software).My PhD research was possible with funding from Cambridge Trust and Nehru Trust for Cambridge University, Anthony Wilkin Trust, Smuts Trust, Sidney Sussex College and McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. Parts of this research were carried out as part of the TwoRains project (http://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/two-rains), which is funded by a Horizon 2020 European Research Council (ERC) Consolidator Grant (H2020, 648609), and is based in the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research at the University of Cambridge. TwoRains is being carried out in collaboration with Prof. Ravindra Nath Singh and the Department of AIHC and Archaeology at Banaras Hindu University. Some samples analysed in this thesis were also acquired from the Land, Water and Settlement project (http://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/land-water-settlement), whose work has laid the foundations for the work being carried out by the TwoRains project

Systèmes alimentaires et produits organiques dans l'Arabie du Sud-Est antique : résultats préliminaires de l'analyse des résidus lipidiques dans des récipients en céramique provenant de la tombe A de Hili 8 et de Hili Nord, al Ain, Émirats arabes unis.

International audienceExchange networks in the Bronze Age between SE Arabia, Mesopotamia, SE Iran, SW Pakistan and the Indus Valley moved a variety of raw and finished products, especially pottery. However, we have little understanding of what organic products were a part of these exchange networks, as well as what foodstuffs were prepared in ceramic vessels as part of everyday activities. This paper presents the preliminary results of lipid residue analysis of local and imported vessels from Hili 8 and Hili North Tomb A in al-Ain, United Arab Emirates (UAE). Absorbed lipids were extracted and analysed via Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) from a range of vessels, including local, regional, Indus, Mesopotamian and Makran wares. A majority of the lipid profiles were indicative of degraded animal fats, however some vessels, including Fine Red Omani Ware and imported Black-Slipped Jars from the Indus Valley, had evidence for plant oils. Further analyses that will shed light on the possible origin of the animal fats and plant oils are ongoing. The preliminary results provide new insights into the use of pottery at Hili, with broader implications for our understanding of subsistence and exchange networks in the region

Tracing culinary practices in the western provinces of the Roman Empire using Organic Residue Analysis

Unidad de excelencia María de Maeztu CEX2019-000940-MAltres ajuts: The Catalan Institute of Classical Archaeology (ICAC)This study aims at reconstructing foodways in the north-east (NE) of the Iberian Peninsula, focusing on lipid residue analysis of utilitarian vessels and using as case studies the sites of Puig Castellar of Biosca (180-120 BCE) and Guissona (120 BCE-third century CE). In total, fifty vessel fragments of different types and origins were analysed with techniques such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography-combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS). As some vessel fragments were recovered from waterlogged contexts, they had excellent lipid preservation, which enabled the detection of various compounds that are rarely reported in archaeological contexts in Iberia. Analyses revealed both animal and plant products in the vessels, suggested that a variety of food resources was consumed, and that vessels had multiple uses. The detection of levoglucosan in some extracts, along with other heat markers, further suggested the presence of cellulose or starchy products in contact with fire as well as the heating of animal fats. Combined with available bioarchaeological and palaeoenvironmental studies from both sites, the analyses indicated a continuity in diet across the time periods during which the sites were occupied. Some differences were also observed, including the possible use of tubers until the first century CE. The results are then contextualised and compared with other available organic residue studies from the Roman Iberian Peninsula. The study demonstrates how the combination of multiple bioarchaeological proxies and biomolecular approaches can provide a holistic means to approach Roman foodways

Domestic food practice and vessel-use at Salūt-ST1, central Oman, during the Umm an-Nar period

Unidad de excelencia María de Maeztu CEX2019-000940-MInvestigations into everyday food practices during the Umm an-Nar period (c.2700-2000 bc) in the Oman Peninsula are limited. We studied lipid residues in pottery from Salūt-ST1, an Umm an-Nar stone tower in central Oman, to understand domestic practices and vessel use in locally-produced Sandy Wares, regionally-produced Fine Red Omani Wares and imported Indus Black-Slipped Jars between c. 2460-2150 bc. Degraded animal fats were found in a majority of the vessels, and we report the first direct detection of dairy products in Umm an-Nar vessels. The use of non-ruminant fats, plants and/or mixtures of different products is also suggested. Variations in lipid concentrations and contents of Fine Red Omani Wares and Sandy Wares suggest different uses for these vessel categories. Finally, the detection of a range of products (ruminant meat, dairy fats, non-ruminant fats and mixtures) in Indus Black-Slipped Jars from the site indicates vessel multifunctionality and reuse of the vessels

Integrating Lipid and Starch Grain Analyses From Pottery Vessels to Explore Prehistoric Foodways in Northern Gujarat, India

This study attempts a holistic approach to past foodways in prehistoric northern Gujarat, India, by considering evidence of food production, distribution, preparation and consumption. We present here the results of a pilot residue study, integrating lipid and starch grain analyses, conducted on 28 ceramic vessels from three Chalcolithic/Harappan settlements (c. 3300–2000 cal. BC) in northern Gujarat, which are discussed in the light of previous evidence of plant and animal acquisition and preparation strategies in this region. We aim to explore how the prehistoric inhabitants of northern Gujarat transformed ingredients into meals, focusing on how different foodstuffs were processed. When assessed on their own, the lipid and compound-specific isotopic data suggest that animal fats were primarily processed in ceramic vessels, specifically non-ruminant fats. However, lipid residue analysis favors the detection of fat-rich animal products and is often unable to disentangle signatures resulting from the mixing of plant and animal products. The incorporation of starch grain analyses provides evidence for the processing of a range of plants in the vessels, such as cereals, pulses and underground storage organs. Together, the results provide a holistic perspective on foodways and a way forward in overcoming preservational and interpretational limitations.</jats:p