Nontraumatic Injuries in the NCAA: Collegiate Football Strength Coaches Should Exercise Caution this Off-Season

International Journal of Exercise Science 14(6): 980-983, 2021. Strength and conditioning coaches were allegedly involved in pre-COVID-19 nontraumatic injuries/deaths (e.g., exertional heat illness, exertional rhabdomyolysis, cardiorespiratory failure) of NCAA (mainly football) student-athletes during off-season training sessions. During the COVID-19 health crisis, non-pharmaceutical interventions against the SARS-CoV-2 virus included suspension of NCAA seasons, which led to student-athletes exhibiting lower levels of mental health. All NCAA championships have now been reinstated. This summer the off-season is unique, because as several programs had stopped practicing/competing for several months, it may foster additional threats to the wellbeing of the student-athletes. Immediate supplementary action may be necessary this collegiate football off-season in order to lower the probability of potential tragic/catastrophic events due to physical and psychological side-effects stemming from the prolonged inactivity period

Five Minutes of Psychological Skills Training Intervention Increase Mental Toughness Levels in Females Athletes

Mental toughness (MT) is conceptualized as a dynamic psychological resource conducive to goal-oriented pursuits and linked with sport performance outcomes. Despite the recognized importance of psychological interventions in sports, constraints often hinder their implementation during competitive seasons, especially on the individual level. Female representation in MT research remains limited. Psychological Skills Training (PST) is a systematic approach used in sport psychology to enhance athletes’ mental skills and abilities. PURPOSE: To investigate the impact of a brief, face-to-face, individualized PST intervention on MT levels among female athletes. METHODS: All 14 members of a Division III female volleyball team (Mage = 20.4; SD = 2.2) participated in the study. The Mental Toughness Index (MTI), consisting of eight items representing the eight essential MT dimensions (i.e., generalized self-efficacy, buoyancy, success mindset, optimistic style, context knowledge, emotion regulation, attention regulation), was administered pre- and post-intervention. MTI items are rated on a scale from 1 (False, 100% of the time) to 7 (True, 100% of the time). The intervention session, lasting ten minutes for each athlete, encompassed a two-minute introduction, five minutes of PST addressing MT dimensions scored 3 or lower (already pilot-tested successfully), and three minutes for goal setting. Data analysis was conducted using MATLAB (R2023a), including paired t-tests, means, standard deviations, and Cohen’s d calculations. RESULTS: Results indicate a significant difference in MTI scores before (M = 40.93, SD = 4.16) and after the intervention (M = 42.36, SD = 11.81): t(13) = -5.99, p \u3c .001, Cohen’s d = 1.04. CONCLUSION: The findings demonstrate both statistical and practical significance of the intervention. The noteworthy enhancement of athletes’ MT levels within such a limited timeframe underscores the efficacy of incorporating PST MT interventions during the competitive season. Limitations include small sample size. Future research should involve larger participant pools encompassing diverse sports and divisions

Measuring Mental Toughness in Firefighters: Preliminary Results on the Concurrent Validity of Two Inventories

Mental toughness (MT) research is predominantly cross-sectional and based on self-assessment. MT has been consistently positively associated with performance metrics when investigated in stressful and demanding environments, such as sports and tactical. The Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) has been used extensively in sports, while the Military Training Mental Toughness Inventory (MTMTI) in the military. In firefighting, MT research is scarce. There is no firefighting-specific MT instrument. Firefighters are considered tactical athletes. PURPOSE: To examine the concurrent validity of SMTQ and MTMTI in firefighters via a repeated-measure design. METHODS: Male firefighters from two departments (n = 14; Age: 29.0 ± 7.0; BMI: 26.3 ± 2.7) participated in the data collection process that took place over two days (two administrations; once per day). The firefighter’s MT level was assessed via both inventories. SMTQ (14 items; 4-point Likert scale) was administered to participants (self-assessment), while the MTMTI (6 items; 7-point Likert scale) to two of their officers (peer-rating). We computed the mean SMTQ and MTMTI scores over the two days (for the MTMTI scores we first calculated the mean score per day per assessor and then, combined both assessors) and for statistical analysis, we converted them to z-scores. Concurrent validity was assessed with Pearson (r) correlation, Concordance correlation coefficient (CCC), and two-way random Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC2k) agreement on z-scores using R statistical packages in Jamovi version 2.3 (p \u3c .05). RESULTS: Inventories were significantly negative correlated (r = -.68, p = .008, 95%CI [-.89, -.23]) and had poor strength of agreement (CCC = -.68, 95%CI [-.88, -.25]) and reliability-agreement (ICC2k \u3c .001, 95%CI [-1.58, .61]). CONCLUSION: Our results do not indicate agreement between the two inventories. Therefore, the inferences of the MT scores of these two different inventories are not in agreement, either. This could suggest the need for a firefighting-specific MT instrument. Regardless, practitioners should be cautious when interpreting the scores of the current MT instruments on this specific tactical population

What experiences are needed to become a Division 1 Baseball, Football, or Track Athlete? A Retrospective Study of the Quantity of Deliberate Play

The acquisition of expert performance in various sports is generally attributed to the extended engagement in deliberate practice activities. Sport-specialization in high-school or earlier derives from the intent of developing sport expertise as well as the economic benefit of obtaining collegiate scholarships. Alternatively, sport-sampling allows for deliberate play. Deliberate play activities provide youths an opportunity to explore a variety of movements and tactics while encouraging innovation, improvisation, and the development of strategies. The influence of the family in the development of talent in sport is already established. Limited research exists that examines how deliberate practice activities in varied extracurricular activities throughout one’s youth contribute to performance in a particular sport. PURPOSE: Investigate the quantity of deliberate play that is required to become a collegiate division 1 athlete in the sports of baseball, football and track and field. METHODS: We used a structured online interview as proposed by Côté, Ericcson and Law (2005) to collect retrospective information. Fifty-one Division 1 collegiate athletes rated the daily activities they were involved when they were young as well as during their current period of development and assessed different factors that may have contributed to their current achievement level. RESULTS: Concerning early activities, 96% of the participants were involved in sports, 65% in musical, 17% in artistic, 72% in organized games with rules, and 48% in other sport-related activities (e.g. watching sports on television). In regards to physical factors that may have contributed to their exceptional athletic achievement, all participants’ height was average or above average when compared to peers and 78% sustained injuries that had adverse effect on their activity involvement. During their current stage of development, the participants tend to spend 26 hours per week sleeping, 10 hours eating, 10 hours socializing, 8 hours for school/career activities, and 8 hours studying. Lastly, although 75% of the athletes’ parents were not top athletes, 75% of them played a role and 86% were very involved when the participants first started in sport, and all parents were supportive/excited when their children decided to specialize in sports. CONCLUSION: The findings provide useful insights to all stakeholders (e.g., parents, coaches, inspiring collegiate athletes, athletic trainers, managers) in regards to developmental issues of D1 collegiate student-athletes, such as early sport and non-sport activity involvement, current daily activities, and the role of family. The developmental path of D1 student-athletes support Simon’s and Chase’s 10-year rule and Côté’s impact of family. Comparing the pattern of results in the developmental history between collegiate and professional and high-school and professional athletes should be included in the goals of future efforts

Mental Toughness in Strength and Conditioning Training: Is it really necessary? Perspectives of elite NCAA Strength and Conditioning coaches

In recent years, there has been an increased awareness and consideration of the association of mental toughness (MT) in high performance in sports. However, MT remains both one of the most accepted and misunderstood terms in applied sport psychology, especially when it comes to strength and conditioning training and female student-athletes. PURPOSE: To investigate the beliefs of Strength and Conditioning Coaches (SSC) of women’s collegiate basketball in regards to MT. In more detail, based on the literature, field tendencies, and practice, 8 areas of interest were covered: 1) Conceptualization, 2) Value, 3) Development, 4) Gender Differences, 5) Measurement, 6) Differences in the responsibilities to develop MT when compared to basketball coaches, 7) Implementation, and 8) Level of interest in learning more. METHODS: Ten National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division 1 SCCs for women’s basketball from the same Power 5 conference were recruited via email. The study followed an observational and cross-sectional model while a fixed and convergent mixed-method design was used. Data were collected on a quantitative instrument (i.e., questionnaire) and on a qualitative instrument (i.e., interview). Eight SCCs completed the Stronger Than Average Mentality (S.T.A.M.) questionnaire on Qualtrics. S.T.A.M. is a 34-item instrument, which was piloted first. In addition, its items’ reliability was estimated using Guttman’s λ2. Six participated in a semi-structured interview of 10 open-ended questions. Both instruments’ items were developed based on the same 8 areas of interest stated above. Capturing the descriptive information about the sample was the goal of analysis of the quantitative data (i.e., descriptive statistics), while data reduction was the goal of analysis of the qualitative data (i.e., thematic analysis). Then, integration of the results from the two strands was performed looking for corroborating or complementary information, which resulted in a 90% inter-rater agreement. In cases of conflict, analytic induction was run. RESULTS: There was convergence of the findings in all 8 areas of interest. In more detail, all SCC’s find MT to be important and would like to know more about it. The majority of SCC’s claimed that they know what MT is, that MT can be developed, that the head coach has more responsibility towards developing MT, and that they know how to measure it. However, there was high variability when ranking MT’s key attributes, while there was no consensus on whether MT can be developed in student-athletes or on whether there are gender differences in MT. None SCC reported use of an instrument for measurement. CONCLUSION: MT is of value in strength and conditioning in this conference. The findings confirm conclusions of previous research, which indicated that –although MT is reported to be widely used– at the same time, it is a very unclear term. More education of the coaches is necessary, especially in regards to the key components of MT, MT training, and MT measurement. Future research should perhaps use a more grounded theory approach and recruit SCC’s from other sports and different environments (e.g., conference, level, country). The development in this age and the transferability outside sports are two issues that should be addressed in future research efforts

Strength Versus Deficit Educational-based Mental Toughness Interventions on Mental Health of Female Student-athletes

Educational-based psychological skills training (PST) is effective in terms of Mental Health (MH) outcomes. Mental toughness (MT), a Positive Psychology construct, is positively associated with MH. Sports training emphasizes working on the weaknesses of the athlete. Positive Psychology is rooted in strength-based interventions. In Applied Sports Positive Psychology, where females are underrepresented, the two approaches appear contradictory. PURPOSE: To examine the effects of deficit- versus strength-based MT interventions on MH levels of female collegiate athletes. METHODS: Out of the 161 female athletes of a SUNYAC institution, 95 participated. MH scores were collected via the Mental Health Continuum Short Form (MHC-SF) while MT scores were via the eight-item, Mental Toughness Index (MTI). Each MTI question (score range: 1-7) represents one key MT dimension (e.g., Q7: Buoyancy). We had previously created and successfully pilot-tested eight educational PST videos (one per key dimension). MT scores 1-3 were considered low (deficits) and 6-8 high (strengths). Participants were clustered into two groups. Power analysis yielded a sample size of 34. Group 1 (n=18) received intervention in the form of 1-3 videos based on their deficits, whereas Group 2 (n=18) on their strengths. Descriptive statistics, a two-sided t-test, and an analysis of variance (ANOVA) on the gain scores were produced on SPSS 28. RESULTS: Deficit Group MH scores: MPRE=43.2, SD=10.3; MPOST=51.9, SD=12.5. Strength Group MH scores: MPRE=52.2, SD=7.1; MPOST=52.9, SD=9.4. Gain scores: ΔDEFICIT=8.7, SD=11.7; ΔSTRENGTH=0.7, SD=7.2. T-test of deficit group: t(17)=-3.2, p=.01, d=0.84. T-test of strength group: t(17)=-.4, p=.68, d=0.09. ANOVA: F(1,34)=6.1, p=.19, =.151. CONCLUSION: Both interventions were effective. Only the deficit-based intervention was significant and of large magnitude. The difference between the groups in the effect of the interventions was also significant and of large magnitude. This is the first study to examine the effectiveness of a telehealth education-based PST strength­ versus deficit-based MT intervention on MH

Comprehensive Evaluation of Hip Arthroscopy for Elite Athletes with Femoroacetabular Impingement and Associated Pathology

Femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) is a recognized source of debilitating hip pain among elite athletes. Hip arthroscopy, including labral repair, and FAI lesion correction have been gaining notoriety as methods to mitigate pain and enable athletes to return to their respective sports. PURPOSE: To provide a comprehensive understanding of the clinical presentation, surgical intervention, and outcomes of elite athletes suffering from hip pain attributed to FAI and associated pathology. METHODS: Elite athletes (n = 35; females = 12) from various sports, including basketball, soccer, martial arts, water polo, and weightlifting, participated. Following unsuccessful conservative management (e.g., analgesic medications, physical therapy), all participants consented to undergo hip arthroscopy. The surgical procedures were conducted under epidural anesthesia with patients in the supine position. We assessed the modified Harris hip score (MHHS) both preoperatively and at the 12-week postoperative mark. After surgery, athletes followed individualized physical therapy programs with physician supervision. RESULTS: The intraoperative findings revealed labral detachment in all 35 athletes, alongside various FAI lesions and cartilage defects. Surgical interventions included labral repair using bioabsorbable anchors, burring pincer and cam lesions, and inducing subchondral bone microfractures where necessary. Postoperatively, athletes exhibited statistically significant improvements, with a mean preoperative MHHS of 69 (at 1 week) rising to a mean postoperative MHHS of 92 (at 12 weeks) (t(34) = -9.62, p d = 2.29). Notably, 29 athletes (83%) reported being pain-free and returning to pre-surgical activity levels within 12 weeks. Three athletes (8.5%) endured residual pain due to iliopsoas tendinitis but resumed full activity between 15-18 weeks postoperatively. Three athletes (8.5%) developed heterotopic ossification but did not require reoperation. CONCLUSION: Hip arthroscopy involving classic labral and FAI lesion repair provides a successful approach for correcting hip pathology in elite athletes. This intervention, although continually evolving, remains a potent tool in the arsenal of sports medicine, allowing for the restoration of hip joint biomechanical function

Mental Toughness in Sport: Moving towards conceptual clarity and consensus

Although in the past three decades Mental Toughness (MT) has been very popular, recent systematic reviews of the literature reveal that its conceptualization remains vague. The definitional issues and conceptual discrepancies have been hindering both research and practice. PURPOSE: To add on the current state of knowledge and facilitate researchers and practitioners by collating available evidence in regards to construct definitions proposed in literature and by presenting aggregated data about their usage. METHODS: Studies were identified by searching the electronic databases of Embase, Scopus, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus. Only papers in the English language were included. Cases studies and papers that did not specify the theoretical framework were based upon were excluded. Two reviewers were involved in the data extraction process. Disagreements were resolved by discussion between them until consensus was reached. RESULTS: This review consisted of four phases: The first phase, Identification, resulted in 381 results. The second phase, Screening, which included removal of articles electronically as well as manually, resulted in 155 articles left. During the third phase, Eligibility, those 155 articles were checked via the eligibility criteria. As a result, 56 articles were excluded. Therefore, 98 studies entered the fourth and last phase, Included. From those 98 studies, 38 different definitions or conceptual platforms were identified. The results indicated that the most widely-used definitions are: (a) Jones, Hanton, and Connaughton (2002) with 18%, (b) Clough, Earle, and Sewell (2002) with 15%, and (c) Gucciardi, Gordon, and Dimmock (2008) with 13%. CONCLUSION: The inferences of these results attest on Gucciardi’s (2017) conclusions. In more detail, all three popular definitions apply on the person and MT is a prominent psychological construct in situations of competing/performing against adversity/pressure. At the same time, it is apparent that the creators of those definitions and the scholars who used them in their research do not agree on whether to adopt a narrow or broad view of the construct. In accordance to the findings of Lin, Mutz, Clough, and Papageorgiou (2017), there’s still a debate in the scientific community whether a multi- or uni-dimensional model should be used to conceptualize MT. As Cowden (2017) has pointed out, less variation in scope is observed in the more recent definitions. Future research, however, has to identify if/when the literature will start shifting towards using them more often. In addition, it is evident that with the popularity of MT increasing, scholars need to intensify their efforts towards agreement. Poor construct conceptualization and further confusion on what MT represents and what it does not, could continue creating issues in research and practice, such as validation of measurement tools and development of evidence-based MT-training protocols

The Effect of Short-Term Adventure-Sport Curriculum on the Level of Mental Toughness of Undergraduate Students

Mental toughness (MT) has been associated with both higher academic and physical performance. Adventure sports studies involve exposure to exploratory and risk-taking activities aiming to facilitate positive psychological characteristics. Although such programs are frequently promoted for this purpose, there is lack of empirical evidence concerning the effects of such a curriculum on the levels of MT in undergraduate students. PURPOSE: To examine the efficacy of an adventure-sport curriculum on the levels of MT of freshmen, undergraduate students throughout their first semester in the program. Hypothesis: The MT levels of the participants increase at the end of the semester. METHODS: In total, 13 students agreed to participate. The sample was of the same Expeditionary Studies class, predominantly male (Mage = 18.7, SD = 1.1). The Mental Toughness Index (MTI) was used for data collection. MTI was administered in the first, seventh, twelfth, and fifteenth week of classes. The analysis consisted of one-way ANOVA with repeated measures in IBM SPSS Statistics. The confidence interval was set at 95%. Normality was checked via the Shapiro-Wilk test. Sphericity was checked via the Mauchly’s test. RESULTS: Assumptions were satisfied. The curriculum had a positive effect on students’ levels of MT at the end of the semester (F(3,36) = 7.629, p \u3c 0.01, η2= 0.39). On average, overall MT scores improved by 9.5 points. Therefore, evidence to support the hypothesis was found. However, pairwise comparisons revealed no statistically-significant mean difference between the first and the second assessment. CONCLUSION: These preliminary results indicate that an adventure-sport curriculum may increase the level of MT of undergraduate students, but not before seven weeks. Therefore, the authors suggest that these programs should be considered as facilitators of MT, but caution should be placed on the duration of intervention. MT’s high level of transferability (e.g., from the classroom to the field to personal life) adds significance to these findings. Future studies should include comparison with students of unrelated courses, higher number of assessments, longer periods of intervention, and experimental design. Possible limitations include small sample size, convenience sample, and limited number of assessments

Sports Analytics in NCAA Division III Men’s Soccer: A Case of Practical Application of GPS Metrics

Sports performance analysis has become an essential tool for coaches as it provides evidence for more educated decisions. However, objective measurement is essential for that process. Recently, GPS metrics have become very popular in soccer as they provide quantifiable data on identified key performance indicators (KPIs). Making inferences from raw data is a common challenge for practitioners. PURPOSE: To analyze and interpret the game data from 2020-21 season to answer the head coach’s questions of a) What is the profile per position (Center Back, Full Back, Deep Midfielder, Winger, Attacking Midfielder, and Striker) based on seven specific KPIs identified by the coach (GPS Training Load, Total Distance, Sprint Total Distance, Sprint Count, Sprint Average Speed, Explosive Effort Count, and Top Speed)? and b) Are there significant differences in those profiles between losses and wins? METHODS: All 29 players agreed to participate. Data were collected using the Titan 1+ GPS sensor. After differentiating practice from game data (n = 16), we created profiles per position based on the aforementioned KPIs. We, then, explored differences between the eight wins and the seven losses (the one tied game was excluded from the second part of the analysis). We converted all raw scores to Z scores, so the scale would be the same across all variables and easier to present to the coaching staff. Therefore, all differences are in SD units (i.e., effect size). RESULTS: Due to space limitations, we are presenting results for the position of the Deep Midfielder as an example. All games: GPS Training Load = 0.02; Total Distance = 0.31; Sprint Total Distance = -0.29; Sprint Count = -0.32; Sprint Average Speed = -0.38; Explosive Effort Count = -0.32; and Top Speed = -0.40. Wins: GPS Training Load = 0.23; Total Distance = 0.80; Sprint Total Distance = -0.37; Sprint Count = -0.41; Sprint Average Speed = 0.00; Explosive Effort Count = -0.40; and Top Speed = -0.08. Losses: GPS Training Load = -0.01; Total Distance = -0.02; Sprint Total Distance = -0.06; Sprint Count = -0.08; Sprint Average Speed = -0.40; Explosive Effort Count = -0.08; and Top Speed = -0.38. CONCLUSION: The coaching staff will use these findings to adjust practices per position for the 2022-23 season. According to the ACSM worldwide survey, wearable technology is the number one fitness trend for 2022. Division III (DIII) schools are the biggest participant in the NCAA. In terms of the number of student-athletes, soccer is the second most popular sport in the NCAA. This case study could have numerous practical implications as it demonstrates how sports data analysts and sports practitioners can collaborate in sports performance analysis