An Early Case of Color Symbolism: Ochre Use by Modern Humans in Qafzeh Cave

Prehistoric archaeology provides the temporal depth necessary for understanding the evolution of the unique human ability to construct and use complex symbol systems. The longstanding focus on language, a symbol system that does not leave direct evidence in the material record, has led to interpretations based on material proxies of this abstract behavior. The ambiguities resulting from this situation may be reduced by focusing on systems that use material objects as the carriers of their symbolic contents, such as color symbolism. Given the universality of some aspects of color symbolism in extant human societies, this article focuses on the 92,000yearold ochre record from Qafzeh Cave terrace to examine whether the human capacity for symbolic behavior could have led to normative systems of symbolic culture as early as Middle Paleolithic times. Geochemical and petrographic analyses are used to test the hypothesis that ochre was selected and mined specifically for its color. Ochre is found to occur through time in association with other finds unrelated to mundane tasks. It is suggested that such associations fulfill the hierarchical relationships that are the essence of a symbolic referential framework and are consistent with the existence of symbolic culture. The implications of these findings for understanding the evolution of symbolic culture in the contexts of the African and Levantine prehistoric records are explored.Anthropolog

Building Stones from a Quarry in Northern Jerusalem Probably Used in the Temple Mount: 5 Years After the Discovery

During the summer of 2009 a quarry was unearthed in the Ramat Shlomo neighborhood, northern Jerusalem, during land development for the construction of a new school. The excavated area of the quarry was about one acre and is indicative of substantial mining activity in the Turonian (Bina Formation) white limestone beds (known locally as “meleke” = king) from which blocks up to 8 meters in length and 1-2 meters in width were excavated. The dimensions of the large blocks are very rare in known domestic ancient quarries, and thus were considered to be relocated for use in the construction of the walls of the Temple Mount. The distance from the quarry (eastward) to the main North-South old (Nablus-Jerusalem) road is around 600 m at the same topographical level (~795 m asl). Along the main road it is about 3 km further south to the Temple Mount, located around 50-70 m lower. The heavy blocks were probably carried by carts driven by oxen, sloping down to the huge Herodian construction project. Today most of the unearthed site is a school but a small part of the excavated old quarry was preserved in the eastern yard of that new complex. Recent examination reveals that the original quarry was probably much larger than the excavated site. The uninhabited and overgrown area between Ramat Shlomo and Shuafat has numerous remnants of quarried walls. Preliminary field evidence and aerial photos indicate a contiguous quarrying area some 350 m long along strike (SSW-NNE) and about 150 m wide. Thus it appears that the ancient area that was quarried was about 50,000 m2. Since the original dimensions of the quarry are uncertain it is, at this time, difficult to estimate the amount of stone that was actually mined. However, it is probable that this area was an important source of high quality building stone for the construction of the Second Temple

Past thermal history of goethite and hematite fragments from Qafzeh Cave deduced from thermal activation characteristics of the 110°C TL peak of enclosed quartz grains

The first direct evidence for high temperature firing of ochre as early as 100 ka ago is presented. The thermal activation properties of three ochre fragments from archaeological levels at Qafzeh Cave, Israel, and a natural ochre from a geological source near Qiryat Shemona, Israel, were studied. The occupation of Qafzeh Cave is dated to -100 ka ago. Under some conditions, the past thermal history of quartz can be deduced on the basis of the thermal activation characteristic (TAC) of its 110°C thermoluminescence (TL) peak. The TAC of quartz grains extracted from as-recovered ochres showed wide differences in the onset of sensitization. Annealing the grains in the laboratory for 600 seconds at 390°C shifted the onset of sensitization up by 200° in the geological ochre and the archaeological ochre QS-2, but not at all in the archaeological ochre QS-1 and only by 30° in the archaeological ochre QS-4. This constitutes proof that QS-1 had indeed been heated in antiquity to a temperature in excess of our anneal, while QS-4 had been heated to a temperature equivalent to only slightly less than what we had chosen. We thus conclude that very early modern humans may have utilised deliberate heat treatment for the production of a variety of ochre colours. We also demonstrate that the direct luminescence dating of heated ochre fragments from archaeological sites is feasible, provided that TAC analysis confirms that they had been heat treated in antiquity to a sufficiently high temperature to have reset the TL clock, and that information essential to annual dose rate reconstruction is collected at time of excavation

Past thermal history of goethite and hematite fragments from Qafzeh Cave deduced from thermal activation characteristics of the 110°C TL peak of enclosed quartz grains

The first direct evidence for high temperature firing of ochre as early as 100 ka ago is presented. The thermal activation properties of three ochre fragments from archaeological levels at Qafzeh Cave, Israel, and a natural ochre from a geological source near Qiryat Shemona, Israel, were studied. The occupation of Qafzeh Cave is dated to -100 ka ago. Under some conditions, the past thermal history of quartz can be deduced on the basis of the thermal activation characteristic (TAC) of its 110°C thermoluminescence (TL) peak. The TAC of quartz grains extracted from as-recovered ochres showed wide differences in the onset of sensitization. Annealing the grains in the laboratory for 600 seconds at 390°C shifted the onset of sensitization up by 200° in the geological ochre and the archaeological ochre QS-2, but not at all in the archaeological ochre QS-1 and only by 30° in the archaeological ochre QS-4. This constitutes proof that QS-1 had indeed been heated in antiquity to a temperature in excess of our anneal, while QS-4 had been heated to a temperature equivalent to only slightly less than what we had chosen. We thus conclude that very early modern humans may have utilised deliberate heat treatment for the production of a variety of ochre colours. We also demonstrate that the direct luminescence dating of heated ochre fragments from archaeological sites is feasible, provided that TAC analysis confirms that they had been heat treated in antiquity to a sufficiently high temperature to have reset the TL clock, and that information essential to annual dose rate reconstruction is collected at time of excavation

Evidencia arqueométrica para la autenticidad de la Inscripción de Joás

Abstract: A gray, fine-grained arkosic sandstone tablet bearing an inscription in ancient Hebrew from the First Temple Period contains a rich assemblage of particles accumulated in the covering patina. Two types of patina cover the tablet: a thin layer of black to orange iron-oxide-rich layer, a product of micro-biogenic processes, and a light beige patina that contains feldspars, carbonate, iron oxide, subangular quartz grains, carbon ash particles and gold globules (1 to 4 microns [1 micron = 0.001 millimeter] in diameter). The patina covers the rock surface as well as the engraved lettering grooves and blankets and thus post-dates the incised inscription as well as a crack that runs across the stone and several of the engraved letters. Radiocarbon analyses of the carbon particles in the patina yield a calibrated radiocarbon age of 2340 to 2150 Cal BP. The presence of microcolonial fungi and associated pitting in the patina indicates slow growth over many years. The occurrence of pure gold globules and carbon ash particles is evidence of a thermal event in close proximity to the tablet (above 1000 degrees Celsius). This study supports the antiquity of the patina, which in turn, strengthens the contention that the inscription is authentic.Resumen: Una tablilla de piedra arenisca de arcosa, de granularidad fina, que posee una inscripción en antiguo hebreo del Período del Primer Templo, contiene un rico conjunto de partículas acumuladas en la pátina que la cubre. Dos tipos de pátina cubren la tablilla: una delgada capa rica en óxido de hierro negro a naranja, producto de procesos micro-biogénicos, y una capa liviana beige que contiene feldespatos, carbonato, óxido de hierro, granos de cuarzo sub-angulares, partículas de ceniza de carbono y glóbulos de oro (1 a 4 micrómetros [1 micrómetro = 0.001 milímetro] en diámetro). La pátina cubre la superficie de la roca así como los surcos y capas de las letras grabadas y, así, postdata la inscripción incisa así como la grieta que corre a través de la piedra y varias de las letras grabadas. Análisis de radiocarbono de las partículas de carbono en la pátina dan un fechado de radiocarbono calibrado de 2340 a 2150 Cal a.C. La presencia de hongos microcoloniales y corrosión asociada en la pátina indica un lento crecimiento a través de los años. La aparición de glóbulos de oro puro y partículas de ceniza de carbono es evidencia de un evento termal en proximidad cercana a la tablilla (arriba de 1000 grados Celsius). Este estudio apoya la antigüedad de la pátina, lo que a su vez refuerza la opinión de que la inscripción es auténtica