The European Union and Economic Reforms: The Case of Spain

Since the 19th century, the obsession of Spanish reformists has been to bridge the gap between Spain and modernised countries. This paper examines Spain’s integration experience in the European Union in order to study how integration has affected its economic structures and economic performance. It examines the relationship between regional integration, economic growth and economic reforms in this country, and draws some lessons based on its EU integration experience. In particular it looks at the impact of European Monetary Union (EMU) on the Spanish economy. While the overall benefits of EMU membership are undeniable, contrary to expectations it has not led to a process of deep economic structural reforms that would have fostered the development of an economic growth model based on value-added and productivity. The examination of the Spanish case will show that the process of economic reforms must be a domestic process led by domestic actors willing to carry them out

Regional integration and economic development in the Iberian Peninsula and Mexico

Since the last century, the obsession of Mexican, Spanish and Portuguese reformists has been to make up the lost ground with modernized countries. This paper compares the experiences of Spain and Portugal in the European Union (EU) and of Mexico in NAFTA to study how integration has affected their economic structures and economic performance. It examines the relationship between regional integration, economic growth, and democratic consolidation in these three countries, and draws some lessons based on their regional integration experiences.Desde o século passado, a obsessão dos reformistas Mexicanos, Espanhóis e Portugueses tem sido a de recuperar o terreno perdido face aos países modernizados. Este artigo compara as experiências de Espanha e Portugal na União Europeia (UE) e do México na Associação de Livre Comercio da América do Norte (TLCAN) para avaliar como a integração afectou as suas estruturas e desempenho económicos. Estuda também a relação entre integração regional, crescimento económico e consolidação democrática nestes três países, e tira algumas lições baseadas nas suas estratégias de integração regional

Efecto de enzimas exógenas sobre la fermentación y calidad nutricional de ensilaje de sorgo

La ganadería del norte argentino se realiza dispersa en una gran diversidad de ecosistemas compuestos mayoritariamente por pastizales naturales, con una gran producción de biomasa primavero-estival de calidad nutricional altamente variable. La conservación de forrajes constituye una estrategia adecuada para equilibrar estos fuertes desbalances cuanti-cualitativos y consecuentemente proporcionar mayor previsibilidad a los sistemas de producción ganadera. Entre estos, la confección de ensilajes de gramíneas estivales de alta producción forrajera resulta una de las elecciones de preferencia. En el norte de Argentina, la especie más usada para ensilar es el sorgo (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench), debido a su buena adaptación a ambientes con limitaciones edáficas y climáticas (temperatura y precipitaciones). Durante la campaña 2014/2015 se sembraron 840.936 hectáreas de sorgo en todo el país (MAGYP, 2016), de las cuales 372.182 hectáreas aproximadamente fueron destinadas a ensilajes (CACF, 2016). En los sistemas ganaderos del norte argentino, este alimento se utiliza mayormente como insumo para realizar suplementación invernal en sistemas extensivos, siendo menos frecuente su uso como ingrediente en dietas totalmente mezcladas en sistemas intensivos de alimentación. Sin embargo, y pese a que la demanda crece continuamente, la disponibilidad de maquinaria para la confección de ensilajes en esta zona del país es limitada, y generalmente no cuentan con el implemento para procesar granos de sorgo (“cracker”). Por este motivo, los granos permanecen casi intactos en el ensilaje de planta entera, y como consecuencia del tamaño pequeño y dureza, escapan cantidades significativas a la masticación. En el rumen, el almidón del grano intacto no es accesible para ser degradado por las bacterias, consecuentemente resulta escasamente aprovechado por el animal, y gran parte de estos aparecen en la materia fecal (Montiel et al., 2011). Consecuentemente, en muchas oportunidades el esfuerzo realizado en obtener un cultivo de sorgo óptimo con alta proporción de grano, puede que sea desaprovechado por la falta de un procesamiento adecuado durante la confección del ensilado. En estas circunstancias, el uso de aditivos que pudieran mejorar la accesibilidad y digestibilidad de los granos y paredes celulares del cultivo podría contribuir a su mejor aprovechamiento

Efecto de enzimas exógenas sobre la fermentación y calidad nutricional de ensilaje de sorgo

La ganadería del norte argentino se realiza dispersa en una gran diversidad de ecosistemas compuestos mayoritariamente por pastizales naturales, con una gran producción de biomasa primavero-estival de calidad nutricional altamente variable. La conservación de forrajes constituye una estrategia adecuada para equilibrar estos fuertes desbalances cuanti-cualitativos y consecuentemente proporcionar mayor previsibilidad a los sistemas de producción ganadera. Entre estos, la confección de ensilajes de gramíneas estivales de alta producción forrajera resulta una de las elecciones de preferencia. En el norte de Argentina, la especie más usada para ensilar es el sorgo (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench), debido a su buena adaptación a ambientes con limitaciones edáficas y climáticas (temperatura y precipitaciones). Durante la campaña 2014/2015 se sembraron 840.936 hectáreas de sorgo en todo el país (MAGYP, 2016), de las cuales 372.182 hectáreas aproximadamente fueron destinadas a ensilajes (CACF, 2016). En los sistemas ganaderos del norte argentino, este alimento se utiliza mayormente como insumo para realizar suplementación invernal en sistemas extensivos, siendo menos frecuente su uso como ingrediente en dietas totalmente mezcladas en sistemas intensivos de alimentación. Sin embargo, y pese a que la demanda crece continuamente, la disponibilidad de maquinaria para la confección de ensilajes en esta zona del país es limitada, y generalmente no cuentan con el implemento para procesar granos de sorgo (“cracker”). Por este motivo, los granos permanecen casi intactos en el ensilaje de planta entera, y como consecuencia del tamaño pequeño y dureza, escapan cantidades significativas a la masticación. En el rumen, el almidón del grano intacto no es accesible para ser degradado por las bacterias, consecuentemente resulta escasamente aprovechado por el animal, y gran parte de estos aparecen en la materia fecal (Montiel et al., 2011). Consecuentemente, en muchas oportunidades el esfuerzo realizado en obtener un cultivo de sorgo óptimo con alta proporción de grano, puede que sea desaprovechado por la falta de un procesamiento adecuado durante la confección del ensilado. En estas circunstancias, el uso de aditivos que pudieran mejorar la accesibilidad y digestibilidad de los granos y paredes celulares del cultivo podría contribuir a su mejor aprovechamiento

Efecto de enzimas exógenas sobre la fermentación y calidad nutricional de ensilaje de sorgo

La ganadería del norte argentino se realiza dispersa en una gran diversidad de ecosistemas compuestos mayoritariamente por pastizales naturales, con una gran producción de biomasa primavero-estival de calidad nutricional altamente variable. La conservación de forrajes constituye una estrategia adecuada para equilibrar estos fuertes desbalances cuanti-cualitativos y consecuentemente proporcionar mayor previsibilidad a los sistemas de producción ganadera. Entre estos, la confección de ensilajes de gramíneas estivales de alta producción forrajera resulta una de las elecciones de preferencia. En el norte de Argentina, la especie más usada para ensilar es el sorgo (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench), debido a su buena adaptación a ambientes con limitaciones edáficas y climáticas (temperatura y precipitaciones). Durante la campaña 2014/2015 se sembraron 840.936 hectáreas de sorgo en todo el país (MAGYP, 2016), de las cuales 372.182 hectáreas aproximadamente fueron destinadas a ensilajes (CACF, 2016). En los sistemas ganaderos del norte argentino, este alimento se utiliza mayormente como insumo para realizar suplementación invernal en sistemas extensivos, siendo menos frecuente su uso como ingrediente en dietas totalmente mezcladas en sistemas intensivos de alimentación. Sin embargo, y pese a que la demanda crece continuamente, la disponibilidad de maquinaria para la confección de ensilajes en esta zona del país es limitada, y generalmente no cuentan con el implemento para procesar granos de sorgo (“cracker”). Por este motivo, los granos permanecen casi intactos en el ensilaje de planta entera, y como consecuencia del tamaño pequeño y dureza, escapan cantidades significativas a la masticación. En el rumen, el almidón del grano intacto no es accesible para ser degradado por las bacterias, consecuentemente resulta escasamente aprovechado por el animal, y gran parte de estos aparecen en la materia fecal (Montiel et al., 2011). Consecuentemente, en muchas oportunidades el esfuerzo realizado en obtener un cultivo de sorgo óptimo con alta proporción de grano, puede que sea desaprovechado por la falta de un procesamiento adecuado durante la confección del ensilado. En estas circunstancias, el uso de aditivos que pudieran mejorar la accesibilidad y digestibilidad de los granos y paredes celulares del cultivo podría contribuir a su mejor aprovechamiento

Procjena potencijala za suspaljivanje biomase u elektranama na ugljen

This paper presents the methodology and results of a country assessment on the capacity of biomass resources to replace partially the coal used in coal power plants (CPP), commonly known as biomass co-firing. The framework for the exemplification has been the Spanish case. The analysis of the Spanish CPPs in the last decade has included technology characterization and evolution and future foresights of electricity production. A total of 20 CPPs consisting of 39 operational coal power units (CPU) using pulverized fuel (PF) systems have been grouped in geographical zones. The available biomass (currently no utilised resources) in 100km area around the CPPs amoutns up to 72.5 PJ y-1. The changes caused by the differences of biomass as fuel have been reviewed, showing that using co-firing rates in the CPUs up to 10% in energy has shown to keep PF units under safe operation. Technical limitations have cut the biomass potential down to 36.5 PJ y-1, equivalent to a 5.4% co-firing rate. This figure is equivalent to a duplication of the current biomass installed power in Spain and to a contribution to the gap of the biomass national objectives of 67%. Economic analysis suggests that co-firing could be economically feasible by providing a bonus between 0.19 and 0.72 €cent per MJ of electricity, which turns into one sixth of the current bonus applied in Spain for electricity produced in biomass power plants.Ovaj rad predstavlja metodologiju i rezultate državne procjene kapaciteta resursa biomase kako bi se djelomično zamijenio ugljen korišten u termoelektranama na ugljen (CPP), uobičajeno pod nazivom suspaljivanja biomase. Okvir za postavljanje primjera je slučaj Španjolske. Analiza španjolskih CPP u proteklom desetljeću uključuje karakterizaciju tehnologije i evoluciju i predviđanja buduće elektroenergetske proizvodnje. Ukupno 20 TE na ugljen koje se sastoje od 39 operativnih jedinica za preradu ugljena (CPU) koristeći praškasto gorivo (PF) su grupirane u zemljopisne zone. Raspoloživa biomasa (trenutno neiskorišten resurs) u području 100km oko TE ima 72.5 PJ y-1. Razmatrane su promjene koje bi uzrokovalo korištenje  biomase kao goriva, pokazujući da suspaljivanjem do 10% ukupne energije CPU jedinice koje koriste PF one ostaju u sigurnom radu. Tehnička ograničenja smanjuju potencijal biomase do 36.5 PJ y-1, ekvivalentno suspaljivanju 5.4%. Ta brojka je dvostruko veća od u Španjolskoj trenutno instalirane proizvodnje električne energije korištenjem biomase, i odgovara 67% popunjenju nacionalnih ciljeva za korištenje biomase. Ekonomska analiza pokazuje da bi suspaljivanje bilo ekonomski isplativo uz bonus od 0.19 do 0.72 €centa po MJ električne energije, što je tek jedna šestina trenutno isplaćivanih subvencija za proizvodnju električne energije iz biomase u Španjolskoj

Procjena potencijala za suspaljivanje biomase u elektranama na ugljen

This paper presents the methodology and results of a country assessment on the capacity of biomass resources to replace partially the coal used in coal power plants (CPP), commonly known as biomass co-firing. The framework for the exemplification has been the Spanish case. The analysis of the Spanish CPPs in the last decade has included technology characterization and evolution and future foresights of electricity production. A total of 20 CPPs consisting of 39 operational coal power units (CPU) using pulverized fuel (PF) systems have been grouped in geographical zones. The available biomass (currently no utilised resources) in 100km area around the CPPs amoutns up to 72.5 PJ y-1. The changes caused by the differences of biomass as fuel have been reviewed, showing that using co-firing rates in the CPUs up to 10% in energy has shown to keep PF units under safe operation. Technical limitations have cut the biomass potential down to 36.5 PJ y-1, equivalent to a 5.4% co-firing rate. This figure is equivalent to a duplication of the current biomass installed power in Spain and to a contribution to the gap of the biomass national objectives of 67%. Economic analysis suggests that co-firing could be economically feasible by providing a bonus between 0.19 and 0.72 €cent per MJ of electricity, which turns into one sixth of the current bonus applied in Spain for electricity produced in biomass power plants.Ovaj rad predstavlja metodologiju i rezultate državne procjene kapaciteta resursa biomase kako bi se djelomično zamijenio ugljen korišten u termoelektranama na ugljen (CPP), uobičajeno pod nazivom suspaljivanja biomase. Okvir za postavljanje primjera je slučaj Španjolske. Analiza španjolskih CPP u proteklom desetljeću uključuje karakterizaciju tehnologije i evoluciju i predviđanja buduće elektroenergetske proizvodnje. Ukupno 20 TE na ugljen koje se sastoje od 39 operativnih jedinica za preradu ugljena (CPU) koristeći praškasto gorivo (PF) su grupirane u zemljopisne zone. Raspoloživa biomasa (trenutno neiskorišten resurs) u području 100km oko TE ima 72.5 PJ y-1. Razmatrane su promjene koje bi uzrokovalo korištenje  biomase kao goriva, pokazujući da suspaljivanjem do 10% ukupne energije CPU jedinice koje koriste PF one ostaju u sigurnom radu. Tehnička ograničenja smanjuju potencijal biomase do 36.5 PJ y-1, ekvivalentno suspaljivanju 5.4%. Ta brojka je dvostruko veća od u Španjolskoj trenutno instalirane proizvodnje električne energije korištenjem biomase, i odgovara 67% popunjenju nacionalnih ciljeva za korištenje biomase. Ekonomska analiza pokazuje da bi suspaljivanje bilo ekonomski isplativo uz bonus od 0.19 do 0.72 €centa po MJ električne energije, što je tek jedna šestina trenutno isplaćivanih subvencija za proizvodnju električne energije iz biomase u Španjolskoj

Combustion Performance of Agropellets in an Experimental Fixed Bed Reactor versus a Commercial Grate Boiler. Validation of Ash Behavior

Agrobiomass is presented as a suitable alternative to contribute to the fossil fuel decarbonization strategy at the European level. To achieve the ambitious objectives established in this regard: (i) new biomass resources need to be used and therefore initially tested in order to confirm its potential for different applications, such as energy production, and (ii) biomass supply capacity needs to be enlarged; therefore, agroindustries converted into Integrated Biomass Logistic Center (IBLC) can play a key role. In this research, eight different agropellets (blends of wheat straw and maize stalk with forestry wood) were produced in a IBLC and tested in a commercial boiler, comparing the results with previous ones obtained in a fixed bed reactor test campaign and to a base case (woody pellets). This paper includes both individual results in terms of bottom ash, deposition, and a final comparison of ash behavior in both facilities. All biofuels tested showed an adequate performance in terms of efficiency and emissions, being slightly better for the agropellets produced with wheat straw. Regarding sintering and deposition, the tendencies found in the reactor investigation were also observed in the commercial boiler. Moreover, the assessment of the results from the boiler and reactor’s tests proved that reactor experiments are representative and may be used to test new biofuels more efficiently in terms of effort and time allocated and could be used to predict sintering and deposition phenomenon occurrence

Ash Behaviour during Combustion of Agropellets Produced by an Agro-Industry—Part 1: Blends Design and Experimental Tests Results

Agropellets are presented as a suitable product to be produced in certain agro-industries which could become Integrated Biomass Logistic Centres (IBLC) by taking advantage of its current resources during those periods in which their facilities are underused. Wheat straw and maize stalk were selected to be blended with forestry wood in an agro-industry dedicated to animal feed production. The materials were characterized to assess the quality of the input material. Taking into account the former, different pellets (blends of woody and herbaceous biomass) were produced and tested in a fixed bed reactor in order to study their combustion behaviour. Additionally, several predictive indexes were also calculated to assess sintering and deposition occurrence probability. Ash sintering degree was found to be directly related to composition and highly dependent on Si content. Moreover, an increase of the wood content in the blend did not proportionally imply a higher quality of the final blend, as would be expected. Regarding deposition, due to the high number of factors involved in this phenomenon, it has not been possible to draw clear conclusions. To do this, it was necessary to delve into the deposition mechanisms, which is addressed in the second part of this paper. Thus, despite the appearance of sintering and deposition phenomena, the combustion behaviour was satisfactory in the test carried out. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that agro-industries can act as IBLCs, producing blended pellet for the energy market that aligns with the standard ISO 17225-6

Ash Behaviour during Combustion of Agropellets Produced by an Agro-Industry—Part 2: Chemical Characterization of Sintering and Deposition

Eight different pellets (one woody and seven blends of woody and herbaceous biomass) produced by an agro-industry were tested in a fixed-bed reactor to characterize their behaviour during their combustion process. The objective was to analyze the possible problems that could arise and, thus, achieve advances in the greater penetration of these agropellets in the energy market. The blends’ design and tests results are presented in the first part of this article. The results of the bottom ash and fly ash samples obtained from the combustion tests using SEM-EDS and P-XRD techniques were analyzed in order to delve into the sintering and deposition phenomena, respectively. Regarding the sintering, a clear relationship has been found between the results of the SEM-EDS analysis and the initial composition of the ash of the fuels. Additionally, the analysis of the results confirms a different ash behaviour regarding the sintering phenomenon depending on the ratio between the amounts of Si, Ca + Mg and K + Na. With respect to deposition, it has been determined that in woody pellets, showing the lower sintering degree, the predominant deposition mechanism is by inertial impact, while in blend pellets it is by condensation, which increases when the percentage of herbaceous in the mixture increases. It has been proved that, in order to compensate (at least partially) for the negative effect of the herbaceous components in the blends, working with a higher λ value is interesting, as it achieves a decrease in the combustion temperature (with λ >1), which implies both a decrease in the sintering degree and in the deposition, improving therefore the ash behaviour in the combustion of agropellets