SKYSURF: Constraints on Zodiacal Light and Extragalactic Background Light through Panchromatic HST All-Sky Surface-Brightness Measurements: I. Survey Overview and Methods

We give an overview and describe the rationale, methods, and testing of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Archival Legacy project "SKYSURF." SKYSURF uses HST's unique capability as an absolute photometer to measure the ~0.2-1.7 $\mu$m sky surface brightness (SB) from 249,861 WFPC2, ACS, and WFC3 exposures in ~1400 independent HST fields. SKYSURF's panchromatic dataset is designed to constrain the discrete and diffuse UV to near-IR sky components: Zodiacal Light (ZL; inner Solar System), Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs; outer Solar System), Diffuse Galactic Light (DGL), and the discrete plus diffuse Extragalactic Background Light (EBL). We outline SKYSURF's methods to: (1) measure sky-SB levels between its detected objects; (2) measure the integrated discrete EBL, most of which comes from AB$\simeq$17-22 mag galaxies; and (3) estimate how much diffuse light may exist in addition to the extrapolated discrete galaxy counts. Simulations of HST WFC3/IR images with known sky-values and gradients, realistic cosmic ray (CR) distributions, and star plus galaxy counts were processed with nine different algorithms to measure the "Lowest Estimated Sky-SB" (LES) in each image between the discrete objects. The best algorithms recover the inserted LES values within 0.2% when there are no image gradients, and within 0.2-0.4% when there are 5-10% gradients. SKYSURF requires non-standard re-processing of these HST images that includes restoring the lowest sky-level from each visit into each drizzled image. We provide a proof of concept of our methods from the WFC3/IR F125W images, where any residual diffuse light that HST sees in excess of the Kelsall et al. (1998) Zodiacal model prediction does not depend on the total object flux that each image contains. This enables us to present our first SKYSURF results on diffuse light in Carleton et al. (2022).Comment: Accepted to AJ; see accompanying paper Carleton et al. 2022: arXiv:2205.06347. Comments welcome

SKYSURF: Constraints on Zodiacal Light and Extragalactic Background Light through Panchromatic HST All-Sky Surface-Brightness Measurements: II. First Limits on Diffuse Light at 1.25, 1.4, and 1.6 microns

We present the first results from the HST Archival Legacy project "SKYSURF." As described in Windhorst et al. 2022, SKYSURF utilizes the large HST archive to study the diffuse UV, optical, and near-IR backgrounds and foregrounds in detail. Here we utilize SKYSURF's first sky-surface brightness measurements to constrain the level of near-IR diffuse Extragalactic Background Light (EBL). Our sky-surface brightness measurements have been verified to an accuracy of better than 1%, which when combined with systematic errors associated with HST, results in sky brightness uncertainties of $\sim$2-4% $\simeq$ 0.005 MJy/sr in each image. We put limits on the amount of diffuse EBL in three near-IR filters (F125W, F140W, and F160W) by comparing our preliminary sky measurements of $> 30,000$ images to Zodiacal light models, carefully selecting the darkest images to avoid contamination from stray light. In addition, we investigate the impact that instrumental thermal emission has on our measurements, finding that it has a limited impact on F125W and F140W measurements, whereas uncertainties in the exact thermal state of HST results in significant uncertainties in the level of astrophysical diffuse light in F160W images. When compared to the Kelsall et al. (1998) Zodiacal model, an isotropic diffuse background of $30$ nW m$^{-2}$ sr$^{-1}$ remains, whereas using the Wright (1998) Zodiacal model results in no discernible diffuse background. Based primarily on uncertainties in the foreground model subtraction, we present limits on the amount of diffuse EBL of 29 nW m$^{-2}$ sr$^{-1}$, 40 nW m$^{-2}$ sr$^{-1}$, and 29 nW m$^{-2}$ sr$^{-1}$ for F125W, F140W, and F160W respectively. While this light is generally isotropic, our modeling at this point does not distinguish between a cosmological origin or a Solar System origin (such as a dim, diffuse, spherical cloud of cometary dust).Comment: To be submitted with Windhorst et al. 2022 to AJ. Main figures are Fig. 10 and 11. Comments welcome