Diagnosis of physical and biological control over phytoplankton in the Gulf of Maine-Georges Bank region using an adjoint data assimilation approach

The linkage between physical and biological processes, particularly the effect of the circulation field on the distribution of phytoplankton, is studied by applying a two-dimensional model and an adjoint data assimilation approach to the Gulf of Maine-Georges Bank region. The model results, comparing well with observation data, reveal seasonal and geographic variations of phytoplankton concentration and verify that the seasonal cycles of phytoplankton are controlled by both biological sources and advection processes which are functions of space and time and counterbalance each other. Although advective flux divergences have greater magnitudes on Georges Bank than in the coastal region of the western Gulf of Maine, advection control over phytoplankton concentration is more significant in the coastal region of the western Gulf of Maine. The model results also suggest that the two separated populations in the coastal regions of the western Gulf of Maine and on Georges Bank are self-sustaining.Shandong Sheng (China) (Shandong Young and Middle-Aged Scientists Research Award, grant BS2011HZ021

The seasonal variation of the upper layers of the South China Sea (SCS) circulation and the Indonesian through flow (ITF): An ocean model study

The upper layer, wind-driven circulation of the South China Sea (SCS), its through-flow (SCSTF) and the Indonesian through flow (ITF) are simulated using a high resolution model, FVCOM (finite volume coastal ocean model) in a regional domain comprising the Maritime Continent. The regional model is embedded in the MIT global ocean general circulation model (ogcm) which provides surface forcing and boundary conditions of all the oceanographic variables at the lateral open boundaries in the Pacific and Indian oceans. A five decade long simulation is available from the MITgcm and we choose to investigate and compare the climatologies of two decades, 1960–1969 and 1990–1999. The seasonal variability of the wind-driven circulation produced by the monsoon system is realistically simulated. In the SCS the dominant driving force is the monsoon wind and the surface circulation reverses accordingly, with a net cyclonic tendency in winter and anticyclonic in summer. The SCS circulation in the 90s is weaker than in the 60s because of the weaker monsoon system in the 90s. In the upper 50 m the interaction between the SCSTF and ITF is very important. The southward ITF can be blocked by the SCSTF at the Makassar Strait during winter. In summer, part of the ITF feeds the SCSTF flowing into the SCS through the Karimata Strait. Differently from the SCS, the ITF is primarily controlled by the sea level difference between the western Pacific and eastern Indian Ocean. The ITF flow, consistently southwestward below the surface layer, is stronger in the 90s. The volume transports for winter, summer and yearly are estimated from the simulation through all the interocean straits. On the annual average, there is a ∼5.6 Sv of western Pacific water entering the SCS through the Luzon Strait and ∼1.4 Sv exiting through the Karimata Strait into the Java Sea. Also, ∼2 Sv of SCS water enters the Sulu Sea through the Mindoro Strait, while ∼2.9 Sv flow southwards through the Sibutu Strait merging into the ITF. The ITF inflow occurs through the Makassar Strait (up to ∼62%) and the Lifamatola Strait (∼38%). The annual average volume transport of the ITF inflow from the simulation is ∼15 Sv in the 60s and ∼16.6 Sv in the 90s, very close to the long term observations. The ITF outflow through the Lombok, Ombai and Timor straits is ∼16.8 Sv in the 60s and 18.9 Sv in the 90s, with the outflow greater by 1.7 Sv and 2.3 Sv respectively. The transport estimates of the simulation at all the straits are in rather good agreement with the observational estimates. We analyze the thermal structure of the domain in the 60s and 90s and assess the simulated temperature patterns against the SODA reanalysis product, with special focus on the shallow region of the SCS. The SODA dataset clearly shows that the yearly averaged temperatures of the 90s are overall warmer than those of the 60s in the surface, intermediate and some of the deep layers and the decadal differences (90s − 60s) indicate that the overall warming of the SCS interior is a local effect. In the simulation the warm trend from the 60s to the 90s in well reproduced in the surface layer. In particular, the simulated temperature profiles at two shallow sites at midway in the SCSTF agree rather well with the SODA profiles. However, the warming trend in the intermediate (deep) layers is not reproduced in the simulation. We find that this deficiency is mostly due to a deficiency in the initial temperature fields provide by the MITgcm.Singapore. National Research Foundation (Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology Center. Center of Environment Sensing and Modeling Program

Diagnosis of physical and biological controls on phytoplankton distribution in the Sargasso Sea

The linkage between physical and biological processes is studied by applying a one-dimensional physical-biological coupled model to the Sargasso Sea. The physical model is the Princeton Ocean Model and the biological model is a five-component system including phytoplankton, zooplankton, nitrate, ammonium, and detritus. The coupling between the physical and biological model is accomplished through vertical mixing which is parameterized by the level 2.5 Mellor and Yamada turbulence closure scheme. The coupled model investigates the annual cycle of ecosystem production and the response to external forcing, such as heat flux, wind stress, and surface salinity, and the relative importance of physical processes in affecting the ecosystem. Sensitivity experiments are also carried out, which provide information on how the model bio-chemical parameters affect the biological system. The computed seasonal cycles compare reasonably well with the observations of the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study (BATS). The spring bloom of phytoplankton occurs in March and April, right after the weakening of the winter mixing and before the establishment of the summer stratification. The bloom of zooplankton occurs about two weeks after the bloom of phytoplankton. The sensitivity experiments show that zooplankton is more sensitive to the variations of biochemical parameters than phytoplankton.Shandong Sheng (China) (Shandong Young Scientists Research Award, grant BS2011HZ021

Regime shift of the South China Sea SST in the late 1990s

Decadal variability of the South China Sea (SCS) sea surface temperature (SST) during 1982–2014 is investigated using observations and ocean reanalysis datasets. The SCS SST shows an abrupt transition from a cold-to-warm regime in the late 1990s. Based on the long-term SST variability two epochs are defined, 1982–1996 and 2000–2014 as cold and warm regimes respectively, spanning on either side of the 1997–1999 SCS warming. Despite the occurrence of strong El Nino induced warming events, the SST anomalies tend to be negative in the cold regime. Conversely during the warm regime, the positive SST anomalies have dominated over the La Nina driven cooling events. The cold (warm) SST regime is marked by net heat gain (loss) by the SCS. The long-term variations of net surface heat flux are mainly driven by the latent heat flux anomalies while the short wave flux plays a secondary role. Low-frequency variability of the South China Sea throughflow (SCSTF) appears to be closely related to the SCS SST regime shift. The SCSTF shows reversing trends during the cold and warm epochs. The weakened SCSTF in the warm regime has promoted the SCS warming by limiting the outward flow of warm water from the SCS. Meanwhile, enhanced SCSTF during the cold regime acts as a cooling mechanism and lead to persistent negative SST anomalies. The change in trend of the SCSTF and SST regime shift coincides with the switching of pacific decadal oscillation from a warm to cold phase in the late 1990s.Singapore. National Research Foundation (Singapore MIT Alliance for Research and Technology’s Centre for Environmental Sensing and Modeling interdisciplinary research program

Box modeling of the Eastern Mediterranean sea

In ∼1990 a new source of deep water formation in the Eastern Mediterranean was found in the southern part of the Aegean sea. Till then, the only source of deep water formation in the Eastern Mediterranean was in the Adriatic sea; the rate of the deep water formation of the new Aegean source is 1 Sv, three times larger than the Adriatic source. We develop a simple three-box model to study the stability of the thermohaline circulation of the Eastern Mediterranean sea. The three boxes represent the Adriatic sea, Aegean sea, and the Ionian seas. The boxes exchange heat and salinity and may be described by a set of nonlinear differential equations. We analyze these equations and find that the system may have one, two, or four stable flux states. We conjecture that the change in the deep water formation in the Eastern Mediterranean sea is attributed to a switch between the different states on the thermohaline circulation; this switch may result from decreased temperature and/or increased salinity over the Aegean sea

Coupled seasonal and intraseasonal variability in the South China Sea

Based on 10 year climatological data and simulations from a regional atmosphere–ocean coupled model (FVCOM-RegCM3), this study examined the coupled seasonal and intraseasonal variability of atmospheric–oceanic variables [sea surface temperature (SST), winds, rainfall and heat fluxes] and important roles of coupling in the South China Sea. It is showed that even though both coupled and uncoupled models in general are able to capture observed seasonal and intraseasonal variability, the coupled model demonstrates stronger coupling relationship than the uncoupled model. For seasonal variability, the atmosphere–ocean relationship is presented as SST forcing atmosphere. Atmospheric variables are significantly influenced by strong seasonally-varied SST. The coupled model very accurately reproduced the observed SST variation with a stable equilibrium state, while SST from the uncoupled model gradually drifted away from the equilibrium state lacking of the so-called negative SST-heat flux feedback. Lead-lag analysis showed that the coupled variables demonstrated stronger SST-atmosphere relationship than the uncoupled and even observed variables. For intraseasonal variability, the atmosphere–ocean relationship is presented as atmosphere forcing SST. Wind becomes a dominant forcing and demonstrates robust negative relationship with SST and positive relationship with rainfall/LHF. Both coupled and uncoupled models are able to reproduce this observed relationship. In wind-SST relationship, compared to uncoupled and observed variables, the coupled model produced the smallest SST variances and therefore the strongest negative coupling feedback. Sensitivity experiments were also carried out to examine the roles of coupling by directly comparing differences between the coupled and uncoupled experiments with initial temperature perturbations. It is showed that the differences can be up to 50 % of the standard deviations of the variables. Root-mean-square errors of the uncoupled model can be effectively reduced by ~65 % in the coupled model.National Natural Science Foundation (China) (No. 41106003)Chinese Academy of Sciences. Strategic Priority Research Program (No. XDA11010303)Singapore. National Research Foundation (Center for Environmental Sensing and Monitoring (CENSAM) under the Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (SMART) program

The Various Components of the Circulation in the Singapore Strait Region: Tidal, Wind and Eddy-driven Circulations and Their Relative Importance

To obtain a better understanding of environment-related physical oceanography in Singapore Strait Region, numerical experiments are implemented to study the circulation in SSR. The three important components, tidal, wind and eddy-driven circulations are identified. It is shown that the tidal circulation is dominant in the region. Even though the wind and eddy circulations are relatively small, they may have significant effect on the local circulation and material transport.Singapore-MIT Alliance. Center for Environmental Sensing and MonitoringSingapore. National Research Foundatio

Storm surges in the Singapore Strait due to winds in the South China Sea

Among the semi-enclosed basins of the world ocean, the South China Sea (SCS) is unique in its configuration as it lies under the main southwest-northeast pathway of the seasonal monsoons. The northeast (NE) monsoon (November–February) and southwest (SW) monsoon (June–August) dominate the large-scale sea level dynamics of the SCS. Sunda Shelf at the southwest part of SCS tends to amplify Sea Level Anomalies (SLAs) generated by winds over the sea. The entire region, bounded by Gulf of Thailand on the north, Karimata Strait on the south, east cost of Peninsular Malaysia on the west, and break of Sunda Shelf on the east, could experience positive or negative SLAs depending on the wind direction and speed. Strong sea level surges during NE monsoon, if coincide with spring tide, usually lead to coastal floods in the region. To understand the phenomena, we analyzed the wind-driven sea level anomalies focusing on Singapore Strait (SS), laying at the most southwest point of the region. An analysis of Tanjong Pagar tide gauge data in the SS, as well as satellite altimetry and reanalyzed wind in the region, reveals that the wind over central part of SCS is arguably the most important factor determining the observed variability of SLAs at hourly to monthly scales. Climatological SLAs in SS are found to be positive, and of the order of 30 cm during NE monsoon, but negative, and of the order of 20 cm during SW monsoon. The largest anomalies are associated with intensified winds during NE monsoon, with historical highs exceeding 50 cm. At the hourly and daily time-scales, SLA magnitude is correlated with the NE wind speed over central part of SCS with an average time lag of 36–42 h. An exact solution is derived by approximating the elongated SCS shape with one-dimensional two-step channel. The solution is utilized to derive simple model connecting SLAs in SS with the wind speeds over central part of SCS. Due to delay of sea level anomaly in SS with respect to the remote source at SCS, the simplified solutions could be used for storm surge forecast, with a lead time exceeding 1 day.Singapore. National Research Foundation (Singapore MIT Alliance for Research and Technology)Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology. Center for Environmental Sensing and Modelin

Dynamical and thermodynamical analysis of the South China Sea winter cold tongue

Spatial distribution of the South China Sea (SCS) surface temperature shows strong cold anomalies over the Sunda Shelf during the boreal winter season. The band of low sea surface temperature (SST) region located south/southeast of Vietnam is called as the winter cold tongue (CT) in the SCS. Using observational and re-analysis datasets a comprehensive investigation of the dynamical and thermodynamical processes associated with the evolution of SCS CT is performed in this study. The role and relative importance of wind-driven ocean transports, air–sea heat fluxes and oceanic processes are explored. The north-south Sverdrup transport demonstrates strong southward transport during the northeast monsoon period aiding the SST cooling by bringing relatively cold water from the north. The zonal and meridional Ekman transports exhibit relatively weak westward and northward transports to the CT region during this period. The study suggests that wind-driven ocean transports have a significant role in regulating the shape and spatial extent of the CT. The heat budget analysis revealed that net surface heat flux decrease during the northeast monsoon acts as the primary cooling mechanism responsible for the development of the SCS CT, while the horizontal advection of cold water by the western boundary current along the coast of Vietnam plays a secondary role. The wintertime SST anomalies over the CT region are significantly linked to the Nino3 index. Most of the warming/cooling events in the SST anomalies coincide with the El Nino/La Nina phenomena in the Pacific Ocean.Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology. Center for Environmental Sensing and Modelin

Opposite Variability of Indonesian Throughflow and South China Sea Throughflow in the Sulawesi Sea

Based on a high-resolution (0.1° × 0.1°) regional ocean model covering the entire northern Pacific, this study investigated the seasonal and interannual variability of the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF) and the South China Sea Throughflow (SCSTF) as well as their interactions in the Sulawesi Sea. The model efficiency in simulating the general circulations of the western Pacific boundary currents and the ITF/SCSTF through the major Indonesian seas/straits was first validated against the International Nusantara Stratification and Transport (INSTANT) data, the OFES reanalysis, and results from previous studies. The model simulations of 2004–12 were then analyzed, corresponding to the period of the INSTANT program. The results showed that, derived from the North Equatorial Current (NEC)–Mindanao Current (MC)–Kuroshio variability, the Luzon–Mindoro–Sibutu flow and the Mindanao–Sulawesi flow demonstrate opposite variability before flowing into the Sulawesi Sea. Although the total transport of the Mindanao–Sulawesi flow is much larger than that of the Luzon–Mindoro–Sibutu flow, their variability amplitudes are comparable but out of phase and therefore counteract each other in the Sulawesi Sea. Budget analysis of the two major inflows revealed that the Luzon–Mindoro–Sibutu flow is enhanced southward during winter months and El Niño years, when more Kuroshio water intrudes into the SCS. This flow brings more buoyant SCS water into the western Sulawesi Sea through the Sibutu Strait, building up a west-to-east pressure head anomaly against the Mindanao–Sulawesi inflow and therefore resulting in a reduced outflow into the Makassar Strait. The situation is reversed in the summer months and La Niña years, and this process is shown to be more crucially important to modulate the Makassar ITF’s interannual variability than the Luzon–Karimata flow that is primarily driven by seasonal monsoons