Application of Internal Control Systems in Organic Export Companies: Two Case Studies from Uganda

The organic agricultural sector of Uganda is considered the most developed in Africa with a total of 296,203 ha organic certified land and the most certified organic producers worldwide (206,800), 90% of whom are small scale farmers. They are certified organic under contract production by export and processing companies, using an Internal Control System (ICS) as a group certification scheme defined by IFOAM (2004). The ICS is a viable and well accepted tool to certify small scale producers in developing countries all over the world. In Uganda however, certification difficulties are stated among the main constraints for the organic sector development. Therefore, a qualitative study was conducted from June to August 2008 that aimed at better understanding the organisational context in which the ICS is implemented and at outlining factors for improving ICS performance. Overall, 34 expert interviews after MEUSER & NAGEL (1991) were conducted with two small- to medium-sized organic export and processing companies and their contracted farmers in two districts of central Uganda. Data analysis was carried out according to RITCHIE & LEWIS (2003). Relevant areas influencing ICS implementation were identified as company management, farmers’ production, farmers’ group structures, external consultation and ICS requirements. Contracted organic producers produce quality organic products with a positive environmental effect and comply with the organic regulations. Nevertheless, the results indicate varied constraints in the situation of the contract farming, e.g. the focus on only the export crops, unsatisfactory amounts of purchases, and an increased need for controlling farmers challenging the companies’ working capacities. Developing a good ICS staff structure is hampered by inapplicable consultation and management resulting in fluctuation and conflict of interest. Although the ICS is meant to involve producers, the companies studied bear all the ICS-responsibilities. Sharing responsibilities with producers is a promising new strategy. It is complicated by a lack of trust between the companies and farmers. Farmers’ knowledge on organic farming practices needs to be developed, additional marketing options provided and farmers’ group structures strengthened. Possibilities for improving the ICS concept are in the areas of regulating control by inspectors and farmers, controlling crop purchases, adapting yield estimation and clarifying multiple registration rules. The results obtained from the two companies hint towards opportunities and constraints for improving certification of small scale farmers in developing countries

Maximising soybean productivity with late maturity groups in Mediterranean irrigated systems

Context: The EU aims to improve plant protein production profitably and sustainably with a range of grain legumes suitable to different climatic conditions. Soybean (Glycine max Merrill) could be one important focus as the crop is adapted to diverse conditions and has the highest protein content per kg of grain. Under Mediterranean irrigated conditions, soybean presents a high -yielding potential, either as an annual single crop (SCS) or as part of a sequential double cropping system (DCS) following a winter crop. However, the lack of experimental data and knowledge in some southern areas like Spain, led to the use of rather early maturity groups (referring to experiences from more northern and eastern areas) that are underperforming in southern latitudes (i.e. < 42(degrees )N). Objective: The aims were to (i) explore later soybean maturity groups than currently used for SCS and DCS and (ii) quantify the drivers of their performance under Mediterranean irrigated conditions. Methods: A field experiment was carried out in NE Spain (2019, 2020 and 2021) in a split -plot design with four replications. In the main plots, SCS and DCS sowing dates were tested. In the sub -plots, 8-13 cultivars were tested per year covering MG from early 00 to late III. Five biomass sampling dates during soybean development were performed to fit a growth curve for every MG and sowing date. Grain yield, grain protein content, grains m- 2, thousand -grain weight, 1st pod height and biological N fixation were measured at physiological maturity. Results: The growth curve asymptote showed the strongest correlation with the soybean grain yield (r = 0.95) and the number of grains m-2 (r = 0.88). Consistent higher yields for MG II and III (4476 and 5314 kg ha( -1), respectively) were found in the SCS and DCS compared to earlier MG. Grain protein concentration was reduced in the later MG but in all cases exceeded 40 g 100 g(-1). In the DCS, a grain yield reduction of 25 % compared to SCS was observed, mainly caused by fewer grains m- 2. Biological N fixation was low (30 g 100 g(-1), on average), resulting from high residual soil N. Conclusions: In the SCS, the use of later MG (II and III) increases soybean yields. However, further research exploring MG III or later would better define soybean potential in these systems. While the agronomic performance of late MG (II and III) in the DCS was promising, technical aspects such as later harvesting date (moisture, pod shattering, etc.) or a slight reduction in grain protein concentration (although still above 40 g 100 g(-1)) should be considered. Implications or significance: Our study proposes a shift towards the use of later soybean MG for Mediterranean irrigated cropping systems as a strategy to improve its competitiveness and, likely, farmer's adoption. This study highlights the potential to expand soybean production towards Mediterranean irrigated areas with a high yield potential

Assessing Mediterranean agroforestry systems: Agro-economic impacts of olive wild asparagus in central Italy

The intensification of Mediterranean farming systems has adversely affected the environment. As a result, climate change, soil and land degradation, and biodiversity loss have been exacerbated. A potential solution for addressing these challenges and enhancing farm sustainability is diversification, such as implementing agroforestry systems. Specific indicators are commonly used to evaluate the potential of diversification practices. However, agreement on a common set of assessment indicators is rarely reached. Moreover, the different biophysical and socio-economic conditions between regions make it difficult to adopt practices based on standardized assessments. This study aims at developing a practical methodology to assess the sustainability of Mediterranean agroforestry systems, using a three-dimensional evaluation concept for agro-environmental, economic and social performances. The steps in this study were, (i) define a set of relevant indicators and selection criteria, (ii) validate and select indicators through a participatory approach and (iii) apply the indicators to assess the performance of olive-wild asparagus agroforestry systems in central Italy. Expert opinions and stakeholders' participation were found to play an important role in identifying relevant indicators for assessing farming systems. The results showed that intercropping wild asparagus within olive orchards provides agroenvironmental benefits and economic profitability, but also causes a higher workload. With a land equivalent ratio above one, the agroforestry system is more productive and results in a 50% higher income than olive sole cropping. With similar management practices, both systems had a comparable energy use efficiency and pesticide load index value. However, the annual workload, during the full production phase, increases by 75% in the agroforestry system mainly due to manual labor required for asparagus harvest. Furthermore, the agroforestry system had better economic resilience (positive net present value) in the face of drops in crop prices and rising production costs by up to 15%, whereas olive sole cropping generated negative net present value if costs increased by 10% or prices fell by 5%

Modelling crop yield in a wheat-soybean relay intercropping system: A simple routine in capturing competition for light

Moving from sole cropping to intercropping is a transformative change in agriculture, contributing to several ecosystem services. However, modelling intercropping is challenging due to intensive parameterisation, complex calibration, and experiment scarcity. To facilitate future understanding, design and adaptation of intercropping, it is therefore necessary to develop simple modelling routines capable of simulating essential features. In this paper, we integrated a light competition module requiring four parameters into MONICA, a generic agroecosystem model, with the goal of simulating a wheat-soybean relay-row intercropping system. We tested three calibration approaches using data from two years of field experiments located in Muncheberg, Germany: sole cropping-based calibration, intercropping-based calibration and a default calibration method that incorporates both systems. Under both irrigated and rainfed conditions, MONICA successfully reproduced the aboveground biomass and yield of sole crops from field experiments, with RMSEA ranging from 0.64 t ha-1 to 2.74 t ha-1 and RMSEY ranging from 0.003 t ha-1 to 0.47 t ha-1. By taking light competition into account, the modified MONICA was able to simulate interactive performance in relay-row intercropping. Generally, MONICA overestimated the aboveground biomass and yield across the three calibration strategies, and simulations for wheat were more accurate than those for soybean. However, a comparison among the calibration strategies revealed that the intercropping-based strategy outperformed the others. It significantly improved the model efficiency for soybean yield in intercropping, increasing the Index of Agreement from 0.27 to 0.73, and it decreased the Mean Bias Error for yield by up to 76%. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of using a model that is simple in both calibration and inputs, yet detailed enough to simulate the complex aboveground light competition of intercropping. Additionally, they underscore the significance of cropping system specific calibration, highlighting the importance of calibrating crop performance specifically for intercropping in order to capture genotype-by-environment interactions

Co-designing a landscape experiment to investigate diversified cropping systems

CONTEXT: Intensive food and feed production in sole -cropped, large fields with high fertilizer and pesticide inputs to achieve high yields, has contributed to detrimental environmental impacts. To move towards more sustainable agricultural landscapes, cropping system diversification has been suggested as a promising practice for which the use of digital technologies could be potentially beneficial. Understanding the impact of diversified, newly arranged cropping systems and their management requires long-term experimental data at the landscape scale and practical experiences in using digital technologies which are hardly available. Experimental platforms in an agricultural landscape setup with farmers ' involvement could meet such demands but have not been set up in many regions nor has the process of designing such platforms been described systematically. OBJECTIVE: The overall objective of this study was to describe how an experimental platform can be co -designed jointly by researchers and practitioners to study and understand the impact of diversification practices compared to current cropping systems in Eastern Brandenburg, Germany. Specifically, we aimed to re -design an intensively managed field into smaller field segments that we called patches and to assess the potential of a co -created landscape experiment for sustainable agricultural production focussing on both, the practitioners and scientists perspective. METHODS: We used the DEED research cycle (Describe, Explain, Explore and Design) as a conceptual framework to co -design the landscape experiment called patchCROP within a commercial farm. Patches were implemented as 0.5 ha fields within the original field based on yield and soil maps using advanced cluster analysis which considered soil heterogeneity. The original narrow crop sequence was diversified by integrating new crops, cover crops and flower strips for a five-year crop rotation. To cultivate the patches, large machinery was used during the first years but will be replaced over time with autonomous field robots. Workshops and various methods such as a SWOT analysis were used to adjust the management practices towards pesticide reduction. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The SWOT analysis revealed opportunities and drawbacks to develop such a research platform in a participative manner from both the scientific and practical farming perspective. We found that the farmer -centric position focused mainly on the economic return and feasibility of future field operations in the diversified field. The scientific perspective on the other hand described needs and potentials about the research process for evaluating dynamic, interdependent or opposing natural processes and their interactions like productivity, biodiversity and ecosystem service changes in an agricultural landscape context. SIGNIFICANCE: Co -designed landscape experiments have the potential to simultaneously assess the impact of newly developed cropping systems on biodiversity and ecosystem services beyond the field level, crop perfor- mance and soil quality at multiple scales, and the implications for multiple actors. This is a step forward to extend systems -based research from single plot to landscape research in an on -farm environment, allowing the exploration of diversification measures with new digital technologies in the long run

European soybean to benefit people and the environment

Europe imports large amounts of soybean that are predominantly used for livestock feed, mainly sourced from Brazil, USA and Argentina. In addition, the demand for GM-free soybean for human consumption is project to increase. Soybean has higher protein quality and digestibility than other legumes, along with high concentrations of isoflavones, phytosterols and minerals that enhance the nutritional value as a human food ingredient. Here, we examine the potential to increase soybean production across Europe for livestock feed and direct human consumption, and review possible effects on the environment and human health. Simulations and field data indicate rainfed soybean yields of 3.1 +/- 1.2 t ha-1 from southern UK through to southern Europe (compared to a 3.5 t ha-1 average from North America). Drought-prone southern regions and cooler northern regions require breeding to incorporate stress-tolerance traits. Literature synthesized in this work evidenced soybean properties important to human nutrition, health, and traits related to food processing compared to alternative protein sources. While acknowledging the uncertainties inherent in any modelling exercise, our findings suggest that further integrating soybean into European agriculture could reduce GHG emissions by 37-291 Mt CO2e year-1 and fertiliser N use by 0.6-1.2 Mt year-1, concurrently improving human health and nutrition

Design and assessment of legume-supported cropping systems

Legumes provide high quality protein for food and feed as well as other ecosystem services, but it is still challenging to use them to meet the growing global demand for protein, partly because European farmers consider their cultivation unprofitable and risky. This thesis aims to design legume-supported cropping systems and assess their environmental and economic impacts along with their production risks in European agriculture. The approaches used included (i) the development of a framework to design cropping systems and to assess impacts of management, (ii) modelling the impact of integrating legumes into cropping systems and assess trade-offs, (iii) the development of a statistical method to quantify crop yield stability independent of the mean yield, (iv) assessing grain legume yield stability statistically compared to other crops using data from long-term experiments, and (v) participatory methods to re-design legume-supported cropping systems. The framework consists of a rule-based rotation generator and algorithms to calculate impact indicators, following a three-step approach: (i) generate rotations, (ii) evaluate crop production, and (iii) assess cropping systems. It was used to design and assess legume-supported cropping systems in five case study regions in Europe and to identify trade-offs between economic and environmental impacts. On average, the generated cropping systems with legumes reduced N2O emissions by 18 % and 33 % and N fertilizer use by 24 % and 38 % in arable and forage systems, respectively, compared to systems without legumes. Grain legumes increased gross margins in two of five regions and forage legumes in all three study regions. A scale-adjusted coefficient of variation was developed as a stability measure that accounts for mean yield differences. Using data from five long-term experiments in northern Europe, this method showed that yield instability of grain legumes (30 %) was higher (P < 0.001) than that of autumn-sown cereals (19 %), but lower (P < 0.001) than that of other spring-sown broad-leaved crops (35 %), and only slightly greater (P = 0.042) than spring-sown cereals (27 %). The combination of on-station and on-farm trials with crop rotation modelling was useful when re-designing cropping systems. Nine agronomic practices were identified for improving grain legume production at the farm level. In this thesis, it is shown that legumes can provide both economic and environmental benefits, the instability of yields is similar to other spring crops and that cropping systems can be re-designed effectively in a co-learning process with farmers

Soybean resilience to drought is supported by partial recovery of photosynthetic traits

Climate change affects precipitation dynamics and the variability of drought frequency, intensity, timing, and duration. This represents a high risk in spring-sown grain legumes such as soybean. Yet, under European conditions, no evidence supports the potential recovery and resilience of drought-tolerant soybean cultivars after episodic drought, at different growth stages. A field experiment was conducted using a representative drought-tolerant cultivar of soybean (cv. Acardia), in 2020 and 2021, on sandy soils in Germany, applying four water regimes (irrigated, rainfed, early-drought, and late-drought stress). Drought stress was simulated by covering the plots during the event of rain with 6 x 6 m rainout shelters, at the vegetative (V-stage) and flowering (Fl-stage) stages. Drought response was quantified on plant height, chlorophyll fluorescence ratio (ChlF ratio), chlorophyll content (Chlc), and leaf surface temperature (LST), at different intervals after simulating drought until pod filling. Grain yield and yield components were quantified at the end of the growing season. Compared to rainfed conditions, a drought at V-stage and Fl-stage reduced significantly plant height, ChlF ratio, and Chlc by 20%, 11%, and 7%, respectively, but increased LST by 21% during the recovery phase. There was no recovery from drought except for Chlc after V-stage in 2021, that significantly recovered by 40% at the end of the growing season, signifying a partial recovery of the photochemical apparatus. Especially, there was no recovery observed in LST, implying the inability of soybean to restore LST within the physiological functional range (Graphical abstract). Under rainfed conditions, the grain yield reached 2.9 t ha(-1) in 2020 and 5.2 t ha(-1) in 2021. However, the episodic drought reduced the yield at V-stage and Fl-stage, by 63% and 25% in 2020, and 21% and 36% in 2021, respectively. To conclude, the timing of drought was less relevant for soybean resilience; however, pre-and post-drought soil moisture, drought intensity, and drought duration were likely more important. A drought-tolerant soybean cultivar may partially be drought resilient due to the recovery of photosynthetic traits, but not the leaf thermal traits. Overall, these findings will accelerate future efforts by plant breeders, aimed at improving soybean drought resilience

Schutz der Ostsee durch Umstellung auf ökologisch kreislauforientierte Landwirtschaft: Praxisleitfäden und Software-Tools als Umstellungshilfe

The ecological status of the Baltic Sea is endangered. The high nutrient surplus from intensive agriculture is the main reason for the pollution. In a joint project with all countries around the Baltic Sea, the EU funded project BERAS Implementation (Baltic Ecological Recycling Agriculture and Society) supports the conversion to ecological recycling agriculture (ERA) to ensure a sustainable protection of the Baltic Sea. The project aims to stimulate exchange of knowledge and experiences across countries, to build a network of experts including stakeholders from science, advisory services, ministries, and the food sector and to enhance the demand for organic products. Practical guidelines and software-tools were developed to support farmers in the conversion process to ERA farming. These materials provide guidelines for sustainable production of crops and livestock, farm economics and marketing, and farm management tools for crop rotation planning and on-farm nutrient management

Potenziale des Sojabohnenanbaus in Nord-Ostdeutschland: Einfluss von Beregnung und Sojasorte auf Ertrag, N2-Fixierung und Vorfruchtwirkung

Sojabohnen sind in weiten Teilen Europas eine Körnerleguminose mit großem ökonomischen Potential. Sojabohnen erzielen unter warmen und ausreichend feuchten Bedingungen relativ hohe Erträge und sind so eine interessante Alternative zu anderen Körnerleguminosen. Unter weniger optimalen Bedingungen, wie sie mit geringen Niederschlägen und sandigen Böden in weiten Teilen Nord-Ostdeutschlands vorliegen, wurden bisher nur unzureichende Untersuchungen zum Potenzial der Sojabohnen durchgeführt. Die Ziele dieser Studie sind daher, (i) standortangepasste Sojasorten zu identifizieren, (ii) den Einfluss von Beregnung auf Ertrag und N2-Fixierung von Sojabohnen zu quantifizieren, (iii) einen Ertragsvergleich zwischen Soja und Blauer Süßlupine durchzuführen und (iv) den Vorfruchtwert von Soja im Vergleich zur Blauen Lupine und Buchweizen zu untersuchen