Configuring Test Generators using Bug Reports: A Case Study of GCC Compiler and Csmith

The correctness of compilers is instrumental in the safety and reliability of other software systems, as bugs in compilers can produce executables that do not reflect the intent of programmers. Such errors are difficult to identify and debug. Random test program generators are commonly used in testing compilers, and they have been effective in uncovering bugs. However, the problem of guiding these test generators to produce test programs that are more likely to find bugs remains challenging. In this paper, we use the code snippets in the bug reports to guide the test generation. The main idea of this work is to extract insights from the bug reports about the language features that are more prone to inadequate implementation and using the insights to guide the test generators. We use the GCC C compiler to evaluate the effectiveness of this approach. In particular, we first cluster the test programs in the GCC bugs reports based on their features. We then use the centroids of the clusters to compute configurations for Csmith, a popular test generator for C compilers. We evaluated this approach on eight versions of GCC and found that our approach provides higher coverage and triggers more miscompilation failures than the state-of-the-art test generation techniques for GCC.Comment: The 36th ACM/SIGAPP Symposium on Applied Computing, Software Verification and Testing Track (SAC-SVT'21

Evaluation of Generalizability of Neural Program Analyzers under Semantic-Preserving Transformations

The abundance of publicly available source code repositories, in conjunction with the advances in neural networks, has enabled data-driven approaches to program analysis. These approaches, called neural program analyzers, use neural networks to extract patterns in the programs for tasks ranging from development productivity to program reasoning. Despite the growing popularity of neural program analyzers, the extent to which their results are generalizable is unknown. In this paper, we perform a large-scale evaluation of the generalizability of two popular neural program analyzers using seven semantically-equivalent transformations of programs. Our results caution that in many cases the neural program analyzers fail to generalize well, sometimes to programs with negligible textual differences. The results provide the initial stepping stones for quantifying robustness in neural program analyzers.Comment: for related work, see arXiv:2008.0156

On Trojan Signatures in Large Language Models of Code

Trojan signatures, as described by Fields et al. (2021), are noticeable differences in the distribution of the trojaned class parameters (weights) and the non-trojaned class parameters of the trojaned model, that can be used to detect the trojaned model. Fields et al. (2021) found trojan signatures in computer vision classification tasks with image models, such as, Resnet, WideResnet, Densenet, and VGG. In this paper, we investigate such signatures in the classifier layer parameters of large language models of source code. Our results suggest that trojan signatures could not generalize to LLMs of code. We found that trojaned code models are stubborn, even when the models were poisoned under more explicit settings (finetuned with pre-trained weights frozen). We analyzed nine trojaned models for two binary classification tasks: clone and defect detection. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work to examine weight-based trojan signature revelation techniques for large-language models of code and furthermore to demonstrate that detecting trojans only from the weights in such models is a hard problem.Comment: This work has been accepted at the International Conference on Learning Representations 2024 Workshop on Secure and Trustworthy Large Language Models, SeT LLM @ ICLR 2024 (Vienna, Austria

TrojanedCM: A Repository of Trojaned Large Language Models of Code

With the rapid growth of research in trojaning deep neural models of source code, we observe that there is a need of developing a benchmark trojaned models for testing various trojan detection and unlearning techniques. In this work, we aim to provide the scientific community with diverse trojaned code models, that cover a variety of state-of-the-art architectures, on which they can examine such techniques. We thus present TrojanedCM, a publicly available repository of clean and poisoned models of source code. We provide poisoned models for two code classification tasks (defect detection and clone detection) and a code generation task (text-to-code generation). We finetuned popular pretrained code models such as CodeBERT, PLBART, CodeT5, CodeT5+, on poisoned datasets that we generated from benchmark datasets (Devign, BigCloneBench, CONCODE) for the above mentioned tasks. The repository also provides full access to the architecture and parameters of the models, allowing practitioners to investigate different white-box analysis techniques. In addition to the poisoned models, we also provide a poisoning framework using which practitioners can deploy various poisoning strategies for the different tasks and models of source code. All the material are accessible via this link: https://github.com/UH-SERG/TrojanedCM

Study of Distractors in Neural Models of Code

Finding important features that contribute to the prediction of neural models is an active area of research in explainable AI. Neural models are opaque and finding such features sheds light on a better understanding of their predictions. In contrast, in this work, we present an inverse perspective of distractor features: features that cast doubt about the prediction by affecting the model's confidence in its prediction. Understanding distractors provide a complementary view of the features' relevance in the predictions of neural models. In this paper, we apply a reduction-based technique to find distractors and provide our preliminary results of their impacts and types. Our experiments across various tasks, models, and datasets of code reveal that the removal of tokens can have a significant impact on the confidence of models in their predictions and the categories of tokens can also play a vital role in the model's confidence. Our study aims to enhance the transparency of models by emphasizing those tokens that significantly influence the confidence of the models.Comment: The 1st International Workshop on Interpretability and Robustness in Neural Software Engineering, Co-located with ICSE (InteNSE'23

Memorization and Generalization in Neural Code Intelligence Models

Deep Neural Networks (DNN) are increasingly commonly used in software engineering and code intelligence tasks. These are powerful tools that are capable of learning highly generalizable patterns from large datasets through millions of parameters. At the same time, training DNNs means walking a knife's edges, because their large capacity also renders them prone to memorizing data points. While traditionally thought of as an aspect of over-training, recent work suggests that the memorization risk manifests especially strongly when the training datasets are noisy and memorization is the only recourse. Unfortunately, most code intelligence tasks rely on rather noise-prone and repetitive data sources, such as GitHub, which, due to their sheer size, cannot be manually inspected and evaluated. We evaluate the memorization and generalization tendencies in neural code intelligence models through a case study across several benchmarks and model families by leveraging established approaches from other fields that use DNNs, such as introducing targeted noise into the training dataset. In addition to reinforcing prior general findings about the extent of memorization in DNNs, our results shed light on the impact of noisy dataset in training.Comment: manuscript in preparatio

A Study of Variable-Role-based Feature Enrichment in Neural Models of Code

Although deep neural models substantially reduce the overhead of feature engineering, the features readily available in the inputs might significantly impact training cost and the performance of the models. In this paper, we explore the impact of an unsuperivsed feature enrichment approach based on variable roles on the performance of neural models of code. The notion of variable roles (as introduced in the works of Sajaniemi et al. [Refs. 1,2]) has been found to help students' abilities in programming. In this paper, we investigate if this notion would improve the performance of neural models of code. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work to investigate how Sajaniemi et al.'s concept of variable roles can affect neural models of code. In particular, we enrich a source code dataset by adding the role of individual variables in the dataset programs, and thereby conduct a study on the impact of variable role enrichment in training the Code2Seq model. In addition, we shed light on some challenges and opportunities in feature enrichment for neural code intelligence models.Comment: Accepted in the 1st International Workshop on Interpretability and Robustness in Neural Software Engineering (InteNSE'23), Co-located with ICS

Towards Demystifying Dimensions of Source Code Embeddings

Source code representations are key in applying machine learning techniques for processing and analyzing programs. A popular approach in representing source code is neural source code embeddings that represents programs with high-dimensional vectors computed by training deep neural networks on a large volume of programs. Although successful, there is little known about the contents of these vectors and their characteristics. In this paper, we present our preliminary results towards better understanding the contents of code2vec neural source code embeddings. In particular, in a small case study, we use the code2vec embeddings to create binary SVM classifiers and compare their performance with the handcrafted features. Our results suggest that the handcrafted features can perform very close to the highly-dimensional code2vec embeddings, and the information gains are more evenly distributed in the code2vec embeddings compared to the handcrafted features. We also find that the code2vec embeddings are more resilient to the removal of dimensions with low information gains than the handcrafted features. We hope our results serve a stepping stone toward principled analysis and evaluation of these code representations.Comment: 1st ACM SIGSOFT International Workshop on Representation Learning for Software Engineering and Program Languages, Co-located with ESEC/FSE (RL+SE&PL'20