Strengthening health systems through eHealth: two mixed-methods case studies at 10 facilities in Malawi

Background International agencies such as the World Health Organisation have highlighted the potential of digital information and communications technologies to strengthen health systems, which are underpinned by the ‘building blocks’ of information, human resources, finances, commodities, leadership and governance, and service delivery. In high income countries, evidence of the positive impacts of ‘eHealth’ innovations on the cost-effectiveness of healthcare is growing and many governments are now providing incentives for their adoption. In contrast, the use of eHealth in developing countries has remained low and efforts to introduce these new approaches have experienced high failure rates. There is even scepticism regarding the feasibility of eHealth in low-resource settings, which may be hindered by high costs, indeterminate returns on investment, technical problems and socio-organisational barriers. More research is needed to document both the value of eHealth for strengthening resource-limited health systems and the challenges involved in their implementation and adoption, so that insights from such research may be used to inform future initiatives. While many studies of eHealth for patient care in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) are taking place, evidence of its role in improving administrative processes such as financial management is lacking, despite the importance of ‘good governance’ (transparency and accountability) for ensuring strong and resilient health systems. The overall objective of this PhD was to elucidate the enablers, inhibitors and outcomes characterising the implementation and adoption of a modular eHealth system in a group of healthcare facilities in rural Malawi. The system included both clinical and billing modules. The specific objectives were (i) to understand the socio-technical, organisational and change management factors facilitating or hindering the implementation and adoption of the eHealth system, (ii) to assess the quality of data captured by the eHealth system compared with conventional paper-based records, and (iii) to understand how information within the eHealth system was used for service delivery, reporting and financial management. A further aim was to contribute to the corpus of mixed-methods case studies exploring eHealth system implementation processes and outcomes (including data quality) in LMIC. As described in the following chapters, the research also gave rise to unanticipated and serendipitous findings, which led to new lines of enquiry and influenced the theoretical perspectives from which the analysis drew. Methods Mixed-methods case study was used for the research, taking a ‘soft-positivist’ approach to analysis, which encompasses both inductive and deductive forms of enquiry. Two case studies were undertaken in rural Malawi: one at a 300-bed fee-for-service hospital, and the other at nine primary care health centres that surround the hospital. At the outset of the research, the ‘logic model’ underpinning the eHealth system implementation programme was mapped, based on formative scoping to articulate the goals and intentions of those commissioning and supplying the eHealth system, along with literature-informed theory. This provided a framework against which to evaluate the processes and outcomes of eHealth system implementation at the ten facilities. For the hospital case study (Case Study 1), a retrospective single-case embedded design was employed, with outpatient and inpatient departments being the two units of analysis. Qualitative data included document review and in-depth key informant interviews, while quantitative data was obtained from the web-based District Health Information System (DHIS2), patient files and the hospital’s finance records. For the study of primary health centres (Case Study 2), a single-case embedded design was also used, with the rollout project as the case and the three units of analysis being 3 Early Adopter Facilities, 4 Late Majority facilities and 2 Laggard facilities. This case study used a prospective design, with data being collected 7 months and 24 months after implementation of the eHealth system due to a mismatch between the independent eHealth implementation project and the PhD research. Data sources included documentation screened against the criteria listed in the Performance of Routine Information System Management (PRISM) tools, information extracted from the eHealth system, health indicators drawn from DHIS2 and qualitative data from focus group discussions. In both case studies, framework analysis was used for qualitative data, while quantitative data was analysed by calculating data completeness, accuracy and agreement. Descriptive statistics and the Mann-Whitney U-test were used for analysing finance data in Case Study 1. Content analysis was also used to gain insights from Case Study 2. Results Based on the initial logic model, staff-, service delivery- and management-level outcomes were moderated through the organisational change management and socio-technical factors described below. Key organisational and process factors influencing system implementation Change management processes: Organisational strategies aimed at facilitating the introduction of the eHealth system included training clinical and clerical staff in the computer skills required to use it (see below) and adapting work processes to accommodate and optimise adoption. At the three health facilities where the billing module was implemented, the latter included introducing new procedures for providing electronic receipts to clients and service providers. At Madalo Hospital this also involved the creation of a new category of administrative staff with responsibility for managing the appropriate capture, entry and exchange of data using the system. However, such data clerks were only introduced within the inpatient department, whilst already over-burdened clinical staff in the outpatient department were expected to integrate the eHealth system into their existing work routines. Outpatient departments at the health centres resorted to task-shifting patient data entry roles from clinicians to lower-educated allied staff such as janitors and security guards. Infrastructure and security issues: Organisational enablers were infrastructural and policy interventions aimed at securing equipment and patient data. These included installations of locks and burglar-proof bars, enhanced engagement of security guards and frequent backup of data. An organisational intervention undertaken at the health centres was the introduction of backup batteries and solar power, aimed at providing a continuous electricity supply. However, problems with battery depletion, frequent connectivity interruptions between the client computers and the server and electricity fluctuations and outages, affected both the efficiency of the batteries and the practical utility of the eHealth system. Highly efficient nano-computing units were later introduced, to reduce electricity demands and improve the consistency of available power for the purposes of using the system. Socio-technical issues arising during the implementation process Technical/software problems: There were 24 problems identified with the eHealth system, encompassing its design flaws, security protocols, and hardware and database limitations. For instance, entry of patient data was in multiple windows needing to be minimised, passwords expired with no one at the facilities with rights to issue new passwords, there were frequent disconnections between the client computers and the server, and lists of drugs and indicators for reporting in its database were limited. Although health centre staff used the system for backup storage and retrieval of data, only Early Adopters reported use of the eHealth system’s search function. Socio-technical issues: The technical problems outlined above resulted in a heavy reliance on paper records by the health centres, although centres varied in their attitude towards and persistence with eHealth system implementation, with Early Adopter sites overcoming most challenges. At the hospital, the eHealth system was subjected to such inappropriate use by staff that even establishing rules and an IT centre to regulate usage were ineffective, leading to a system crash in 2012 due to viruses and other malware. Such inappropriate use included staff depleting hospital server space by storing personal files (videos, music, pictures, games), being on Facebook instead of attending to patients, sharing of login credentials and not always logging off their account after use, and removal of cables from the computers. Leadership: At the hospital, there was strong management support for the eHealth system. In contrast, there were strong opinions from staff at Late Majority and Laggard facilities about the ineffective engagement of health facility “in-charges”. Further, many system champions were senior staff and thus busier and more mobile, most often leaving the junior staff at the health centres, who were not formally trained, to be using the eHealth system. Training: Limitations in the scope and number of staff formally trained was perceived to be a barrier to eHealth system adoption at the health centres, particularly lack of training in basic troubleshooting and maintenance. Even peer training lacked follow-up formal training. At the hospital, developing an appropriately skilled cadre of system users was hindered by high staff turnover and departmental rotations, which required frequent rounds of basic training. Staff at the hospital and health centres were nevertheless happy about the computer knowledge they had gained as a result of the implementation programme, although most expressed a lack of confidence in using the eHealth system. Technical support: For reasons including those already outlined, staff requested support for a range of hardware and software problems, not all of which it was possible to fulfil in a timely way, due to lack of sufficient IT personnel. Lack of in-country technical support for the software was also a considerable barrier to progress, particularly for the IT team based at the hospital, requiring requests for changes to be passed to the parent company. In one attempt to address this, the rights to a partial version of the software was passed to a local foundation for onward management, however the software developers were unwilling to release the source code so that further enhancements and customisation could be made. Efforts to recruit more hospital IT workers and reorganising responsibilities were frustrated by high staff turnover among the IT team. As a result, response to calls from health centres for technical support by the IT team was said to be slow and ineffective (except at Late Majority Facilities), and there was no transfer of basic troubleshooting and minor repair skills from the IT team to the health facility staff. Perceived outcomes: Despite the challenges described above, some tracer outcomes of the eHealth system were detectable from the qualitative and numerical results, relating to data quality, service delivery, reporting and decision-making, and financial management. Perceived and measured outcomes of eHealth system implementation Documentation and associated workload: In both case studies, implementation of the eHealth system illuminated the dysfunctional paper-based system, particularly loss of documents. At the health centres (Case Study 2), only Early Adopters reported reduced administrative and patient care workload following eHealth implementation, while the other adopter groups reported increased workload due to dual use of paper and electronic systems, as well as staff shortage and high patient load. Data quality: Both case studies reported poor data quality in the eHealth system, mainly due to the dual use of the paper-based and electronic systems, and staff defaulting to using the paper-based system only. This was aggravated by infrastructure and leadership problems at the health centres. Across the health centres, completeness of outpatient registration data in the eHealth system was 82.4%, as compared to DHIS2 (100.0% for Early Adopters, 73.9% for Late Majority), equivalent to an average monthly omission of 1,271 clients. When compared to DHIS2 data at Madalo Hospital, outpatient registration data in the eHealth system was 76.0% complete, under-reporting by an average 577 clients per month. Compared with the hospital’s paper-based records, inpatient registration and diagnosis data in the eHealth system, as entered by ward clerks, was 93.6% complete and 68.9% accurate. Service delivery (efficiency and patient experience): At Madalo Hospital, the eHealth system was reported to have made retrieval of patients’ paper files faster, as the implementation project had also led to changes in the hospital’s filing system. This new filing system also facilitated retrieval of data for patients with lost paper records, and allowed linking of patients’ outpatient and inpatient records. Reported service delivery improvements at the health centres included enhanced ability for tracing patients, treatment continuity, identifying the correct patient, ensuring patient confidentiality, keeping health workers alert and available, following clinical protocols, identifying the need to change prescription for (or refer) a recurrent patient, and reportedly showing the patient that the provider was paying attention. Improvements in patient experience were perceived to be through avoiding the need for patient details to be re-entered at subsequent visits, better management of queues, and patients feeling more understood by the service provider and having more confidence in the services. Perceived negative patient experiences were associated with staff members’ slow typing skills and unfamiliarity with the eHealth system, dual entry of patient information into both the electronic and paper systems, extra steps added to the patient journey through the care process, and disrupted patient-provider interaction. Efficiency of reporting: After its implementation at the hospital site, the eHealth system had become routinely used to generate data for measuring quality of care, and partly for national reporting purposes (HMIS). Customised reports for the hospital were created and used for decisions such as allocation of wards, advocacy and funding applications. In contrast, all the primary healthcare facilities were still using paper registers to compile HMIS reports, a few in combination with the eHealth system, because of lack of knowledge of the reporting module, poor design of the system’s reports, and disruptions in electricity and network connections to the server. Management of finances: Financial management was reported to have improved at Madalo Hospital due to better-quality data capture and tracking of service charges, separation of billing and receiving roles by recruiting ward clerks, enhanced oversight by management, and fraud prevention through greater transparency and accountability. Although median monthly revenue was significantly higher after eHealth system implementation (P=0.024), micro- and macro-contextual factors confounded this effect, and the descriptive and qualitative data revealed that genuine improvement only came about after recruitment of ward clerks towards the end of the study period. At the health centres, the eHealth system reportedly helped staff in the accounts department with billing, the facility in-charges with financial oversight, and clients with more trust in printed receipts. Conclusion Converging the results of these two case studies illustrates the potential of eHealth to strengthen LMIC health systems through developing human resource capacity (skills, staff roles), facilitating service delivery, and improving financial management and governance. However, realising such improvements is dependent upon understanding the socio-technical interactions mediating the integration of new systems into organisational processes and work practices, and implementing appropriate change management interventions. The results of this study suggest that, for effective implementation and adoption of eHealth systems, healthcare leaders should (1) recruit data entry clerks to relieve clinical staff, improve workflow and avoid data fraud, (2) facilitate appropriate data use among system users and an information culture at the facilities, and (3) strengthen knowledge and skills transfer from eHealth system developers to local implementers and system champions, to optimise responsiveness and ensure sustainability. Further interdisciplinary research is needed to obtain additional insights into factors affecting the quality of eHealth data and its use in the management of LMIC health systems, including the role of social, professional and technological influences on financial good-governance

Factors associated with retention in Option B+ in Malawi: a case control study.

IntroductionThere are limited data on factors associated with retention in Option B+. We sought to explore the characteristics of women retained in Option B+ in Malawi, with a focus on the role of HIV disclosure, awareness of partner HIV status, and knowledge around the importance of Option B+ for maternal-child health. Methods We performed a case-control study of HIV-infected women in Malawi initiated on antiretroviral therapy (ART) under Option B+. Cases were enrolled if they met criteria for default from Option B+ (out of ART for >60 days), and controls were enrolled in approximately 3:1 ratio if they were retained in care for at least 12 months. We surveyed socio-demographic characteristics, HIV disclosure and awareness of partner HIV status, self-report about receiving pre-ART education, and knowledge of Option B+. Univariate logistic regression was performed to determine factors associated with retention. Multivariate logistic regression model was used to evaluate the relationship between HIV disclosure, Option B+ knowledge, and retention after adjusting for age, schooling, and travel time to clinic.ResultsWe enrolled 50 cases and 153 controls. Median age was 30 years (interquartile range (IQR) 25-34), and the majority (82%) initiated ART during pregnancy at a median gestational age of 24 weeks (IQR 16-28). Ninety-one per cent of the cases (39/43) who started ART during pregnancy defaulted by three months postpartum. HIV disclosure to the primary sex partner was more common among women retained in care (100% versus 78%, p < 0.001). Odds of retention were significantly higher among women with: age >25 years (odds ratio (OR) 2.44), completion of primary school (OR 3.06), awareness of partner HIV status (OR 5.20), pre-ART education (OR 6.17), higher number of correct answers to Option B+ knowledge questions (OR 1.82), and support while taking ART (OR 3.65). Pre-ART education and knowledge were significantly correlated (r = 0.43, p < 0.001). In multivariate analysis, awareness of partner HIV status (OR 4.07, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.51-10.94, p = 0.02) and Option B+ knowledge (OR 1.60, 95% CI 1.15-2.23, p = 0.004) remained associated with retention.ConclusionsInterventions that address partner disclosure and strengthen pre-ART education around the benefits of ART for maternal and child health should be evaluated to improve retention in Malawi's Option B+ programme

Ethics in global research:Creating a toolkit to support integrity and ethical action throughout the research journey

Global challenge-led research seeks to contribute to solution-generation for complex problems. Multicultural, multidisciplinary, and multisectoral teams must be capable of operating in highly demanding contexts. This brings with it a swathe of ethical conflicts that require quick and effective solutions that respect both international conventions and cultural diversity. The objective of this article is to describe the process of creating a toolkit designed to support global researchers in navigating these ethical challenges. The process of creating the toolkit embodied the model of ethical research practice that it advocates. Specifically, at the heart of ethical decision-making is consideration of the following: Place , solutions must be relevant to the context in which they are to be used; People , those impacted by the outcomes must be partners in co-creation; Principles , ethical projects must be guided by clear values; and Precedent , the existing evidence-base should guide the project and, in turn, the project should extend the evidence-base. It is the thesis underlying the toolkit that consideration of these 4Ps provides a strong basis for understanding ethical conflicts and allows for the generation of potential solutions. This toolkit has been designed in two phases of collaborative work. More than 200 researchers participated from more than 30 countries and more than 60 different disciplines. This allowed us to develop a model for contextual, dynamic analysis of ethical conflicts in global research that is complementary to traditional codes of ethics. It emphasizes the need to consider ethical analysis as an iterative, reflective, process relevant at all stages of the research journey, including, ultimately, in evaluating the legacy of a project. The toolkit is presented as an open access website to promote universal access. A downloadable “pocket guide” version is also now available in 11 languages

Exploring professional and carer stakeholder conceptualizations of child and adolescent mental health in Malawi using a contextual co-design methodology:The interplay of pathology, the supernatural, and a pathway to healing

In Malawi, there is a high prevalence of mental disorders in children and adolescents. However, access to specialized care is scarce due to a lack of public policies, resources, and cultural factors. In this context, the aim of this research is to understand how child and adolescent mental health is conceptualized by key stakeholders in Malawi. The participants were 117 stakeholders (59 female and 58 male) involved with children’s mental health from different roles. They participated in workshops, focus groups, and open interviews. The data were processed following the steps of thematic analysis. The results show agreement between the different stakeholders in conceptualizations of child and adolescent mental health in Malawi, where symptoms and signs are not necessarily related to the Western vision, as well as the interaction between natural and supernatural sources in the genesis of mental disorders. Likewise, a pattern of help-seeking is described in which traditional healers stand out over hospitals. Finally, the results allow us to highlight the suggestions made by practitioners, policymakers, community leaders, and academics to improve access to and provision of mental health for children and adolescents in Malawi

On Prioritising Global Health’s Triple Crisis of Sepsis, COVID-19 and Antimicrobial Resistance: A mixed-methods study from Malawi

Sepsis causes 20% of global deaths, particularly among children and vulnerable populations living in developing countries. This study investigated how sepsis is prioritised in Malawi’s health system to inform health policy. In this mixed-methods study, twenty multisectoral stakeholders were qualitatively interviewed and asked to quantitatively rate the likelihood of sepsis-related medium-term policy outcomes being realised. Respondents indicated that sepsis is not prioritised in Malawi due to a lack of local sepsis-related evidence and policies. However, they highlighted strong linkages between sepsis and maternal health, antimicrobial resistance and COVID-19, which are already existing national priorities, and offers opportunities for sepsis researchers as policy entrepreneurs. To address the burden of sepsis, we recommend that funding should be channelled to the generation of local evidence, evidence uptake, procurement of resources and treatment of sepsis cases, development of appropriate indicators for sepsis, adherence to infection prevention and control measures, and antimicrobial stewardship

Recognising Sepsis as a Health Priority in Sub-Saharan African Country: Learning Lessons from Engagement with Gabon’s Health Policy Stakeholders

Sepsis has been recognised as a global health priority by the United Nations World Health Assembly, which adopted a resolution in 2017 to improve sepsis prevention, diagnosis, and management globally. This study investigated how sepsis is prioritised in Gabon. From May to November 2021, we conducted a qualitative study in healthcare stakeholders at the local, regional, and national levels. Stakeholders included the Ministry of Health (MOH), ethics/regulatory bodies, research institutions, academic institutions, referral hospitals, international funders, and the media. Twenty-three multisectoral stakeholders were interviewed. Respondents indicated that sepsis is not yet prioritised in Gabon due to the lack of evidence of its burden. They also suggest that the researchers should focus on linkages between sepsis and the countries’ existing health sector priorities to accelerate sepsis prioritisation in health policy. Stakeholder awareness and engagement might be accelerated by involving the media in the generation of communication strategies around sepsis awareness and prioritisation. There is a need for local, regional and national evidence to be generated by researchers and taken up by policymakers, focusing on linkages between sepsis and a country’s existing health sector priorities. The MOH should set sepsis reporting structures and develop appropriate sepsis guidelines for identification, management, and prevention

Knowledge of health workers relating to sepsis awareness and management in Lambaréné, Gabon

Background In 2016, the third international consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (Sepsis-3) task force provided revised definitions for sepsis and septic shock. This study explores knowledge regarding sepsis among health workers in Lambaréné, Gabon. Methods We conducted a self-administered questionnaire-based survey about sepsis among health workers from the referral regional hospital, the research center, and primary care health facilities in the Lambaréné region. Participants were from the referral regional hospital, the research center, and primary health care facilities. A score of one was given to each correct answer. The global score out of a possible score of twenty was calculated, and the proportion of correct responses was determined. Results A total of 115 health workers (physicians, nurses and assistant nurses) completed the questionnaire, of which 48.7% (56/115) provided a valid definition of sepsis, but 74% (85/115) had never heard about the quick Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA) score. The proportion of correct answers was comparable across the three health profession categories. The median global score across all health workers was 11 [IQR, 9-14.5] out of 20. Physicians attained higher global scores [14 (IQR, 11-15)] than assistant nurses [11 (IQR, 8-13), P=0.007]; their global score was comparable to that of nurses. Conclusion There are considerable knowledge gaps regarding sepsis among health workers in Lambaréné, potentially impairing the prompt recognition and management of sepsis. There is a need to establish periodic up-to-date training to improve sepsis knowledge