Biodiversity offsetting – en vogue in Madagascar?

Editorial for 7:

The perfect storm

This has been an unusually tough year. The SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, emerged in January 2020. The World Health Organization announced “covid-19” as the name of this new disease on 11 February 2020 while the world kept looking to China. Within weeks, the virus managed to circumvent the globe and engulfed the world into a pandemic unlike any seen for generations (Platto et al. 2020). To date, more than 73 million people have been infected and some 1.6 million people have died according to the World Health Organization (WHO 2020).Science has been issuing warnings of looming pandemics for decades. “The single biggest threat to man’s continued dominance on the planet is the virus.” A punching quote from the Nobel laureate Joshua Lederberg in the 1990s. Previous epidemics and outbreaks like SARS in 2003, bird flu H5N1 in 2005, and Ebola (2014–2016), were alarm bells (Servigne et al. 2020). Yet, we went about our business ignoring those early warning signs. It seems that our immediate priorities are more pressing, our collective memory short and the Spanish flu—the last global pandemic caused by the HiN1 influenza that killed more than 50 million people or more than 2.5% of the World population, within the span of 2 years—too distant in time to create concern.The global society came to a quasi-standstill. Travelling dropped to almost zero during the first wave experienced in March and April this year. The skies were almost free of airplanes. Oceans free of boats. Streets almost empty. Many national borders closed. People forced to stay in their houses. Only Nature took a moment to breathe (Corlette et al. 2020). This situation of reduced human activities, coined “anthropause” by some scientists (Rutz et al. 2020, Stockstad 2020), led to dramatic drops in air pollution, and for example whales being seen in waters that usually are noisy and full of boats.Impacts of this ongoing pandemic are devastating on several levels. The tragic loss of so many human lives due to this new disease risks leading us forgetting about HIV, Malaria, Tuberculosis, and other diseases, causing annually millions of casualties. The Pandemic has battered the economy, disrupted supply chains and slowed international trade. It has disrupted the livelihoods of most of humanity. Many governments are struggling with the devastating economic costs. Already unlikely to be reached by 2030 before the pandemic, the Sustainable Development Goals now need to be carefully reassessed, as the pandemic’s impacts likely further threaten many of the 169 SDGs targets (Naidoo and Fisher 2020).So far, Africa remains one of the least affected regions worldwide by the virus despite an announced disaster (Nordling 2020). In Madagascar, a scientific study carried out over nine months by the Institute Pasteur and the Ministry of Health suggests a covid-19 prevalence level of close to 40% (Tétaud and Spiegel 2020). This means considerable spreading of the virus within the population, which is trending towards a level experts would label as herd immunity (but see Fontanet and Cauchemez 2020). Madagascar has officially accounted for less than 300 deaths. Taking this number with a grain of salt, the reason may be found in its demographic profile: some 60% of 27 million inhabitants are of age 25 or younger, while the higher covid-19 risk groups (>55 years) comprise less than 10% of the population. Science still needs to find the answer to this question and many more (e.g., Nordling 2020, Zeberg and Pääbo 2020).A rare positive note emerging from this pandemic: Science emerges as a winner. Never in human history was the development of vaccines—a global race leading to some +150 candidates, some with >90% effectiveness—so fast and efficient. It took science less than 11 months from the discovery of this new virus to the distribution of the vaccines. This is truly remarkable and a result of international collaborations. Now that first candidates are already on the market, it remains to be seen how distribution of these vaccines will play out. How collaborative will human society actually be? Who will get a shot first? Who will have to pay for it and how much? More importantly, who will likely never get a chance to be vaccinated against covid-19? We refrain from conspiracies, but politics has shown in this spectral year of 2020, that, if anything, it can be extremely disruptive and divisive—take the USA as a sully example. To date, 7.48 billion vaccine doses have been pre-purchased. Some 40% may go to middle- and low-income countries that account for some 85% of the world population (So and Woo 2020). Nine out of 10 people from 67 low- and middle-income countries are set to miss out on the covid-19 vaccination in 2021. Madagascar is one of those (Oxfam 2020). Sadly, maybe herd immunity—through exposure to the virus, not vaccination—might be a more realistic strategy after all for some countries.A number of factors can come into play and potentially pave the way for the emergence of infectious diseases like covid-19. (1) The globe has become a village. Increased mobility allowed more than 4.5 billion passengers to fly in 2019. Within a day, one can hop around half the globe, and so can a virus. (2) Over half of the human population lives in urban areas. Increasingly high-density cities are an ideal habitat for a virus to jump from host to host. (3) Climate defines the biophysical boundaries that allow species or populations to thrive. Climate change—leading to increased temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events—are shifting these boundaries (Ceballos et al. 2020, Watsa et al. 2020) and laying grounds for vectors—insects, bats, people—and their diseases to spread and establish. (4) Digging deeper into natural habitats by ways of agricultural expansion, infrastructure, and wood extraction—to mention the most salient direct drivers of deforestation—are increasingly exposing humans to zoonotic diseases. Wildlife trade is yet another means to bring humans directly in contact with animals—while calls for bans only risk undermining their purpose (Roe et al. 2020)—potentially further opening the doors to viruses spreading (McCleery et al. 2020).A tough year to say the least. The years to come, however, will only become more challenging. While we will eventually overcome this pandemic, the virus will likely remain amongst us, similarly to the flu viruses. A global economic depression is looming and recovering from this will be a gargantuan task, while the pandemic may have revealed that our economic system is sick and not adapted to the survival of our species. The biggest threat to all life on Earth is already underway and will only grow in severity—the climate crisis. All in all, the perfect storm

We have got to up our game substantially for forests, carbon, biodiversity, and ultimately people

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Tartuffe’s Madagascar: conservation hypocrisy

The international donor community's unbreakable interestSome are more equal than othersThe good, the bad, and the ugly of peer-reviewed publishin

Approaching Human Dimensions in Lemur Conservation at Lake Alaotra, Madagascar

‘Human dimensions of wildlife management’ is a concept that emerged some 50 years ago and has gained global application. A majority of cases report on human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs), where wildlife is causing problems to an expanding human population or vice versa. In Madagascar, lemurs represent a flagship for conservation. Many lemur taxa are threatened, and conservation is facing increasing challenges due to habitat loss and degradation. The Alaotran gentle lemur (Hapalemur alaotrensis) is the only marshland living lemur. Its conservation is particularly challenging due to various conflicting interests of different stakeholder groups. The Alaotra region is the bread basket of Madagascar, producing a majority of inland fish and rice. Here we present a new venue taken by conservation, which is based on a transdisciplinary research approach, participatory modeling, and gaming through role-playing games (RPGs). This holds promise to engage stakeholders from the onset of conservation planning and management, and it is hoped that increased participation will spur ownership and thus reduce conflicts among stakeholders to increase conservation effectiveness to safe Hapalemur alaotrensis from extinction

Roots & Shoots – a Model for Active Environmental Protection

Madagascar is facing severe environmental problems. One approach to engage possible future stakeholders and to raise awareness for environmental concerns is the Roots & Shoots program. On the following the program and its philosophy are presented

Forests in Madagascar do matter

Madagascar had a rough start into the year 2007. After cyclones Anita, Bondo and Clovis in December, Gamede and Favio in February, Indlala cut across Madagascar just two weeks before Jaya came ashore at the northern tip of Madagascar at the beginning of April. They caused flooding, displacement, crop and forest damage, as well as other detrimental short-term effects. The cumulative impacts of these seven cyclones will be immense and hard to quantify. On average, there was more precipitation per day during these four months in 2007 than averaged over the last ten years. While the northern part of the island was suffering from flooding, an extended drought created struggle amongst the Malagasy people in the south, once more demonstrating how diverse the climatic influence can be even on a single island. In total, around half a million people were directly affected by these erratic weather events. In June 2007, the Antsinanana rainforests were inscribed to the UNESCO‘s World Heritage List comprising of six national parks distributed along the eastern part of the island. These rainforests harbor more than 80 % of endemic species, which is important to be under best possible national and international protection, since threats are omnipresent. The IUCN / SSC Primate Specialist Group just recently published an updated list of the 25 most endangered primate species for 2006 - 2008. The ‘representatives’ for Madagascar are four lemur species of which the Greater bamboo lemur, the White - collared lemur, and the Silky sifaka were reconfirmed on the list, and the Sahamalaza sportive lemur, a recently described species, replaced the Perriers sifaka. These lemurs share a common tragedy: they live in more and more isolated and patchy forest habitats. The forests of Madagascar cover about 20 % of the island’s surface, presenting a variety of ecosystems, hosting the majority of terrestrial faunal and floral species. These forests are characterized by a high degree of endemism, and, as Goodman and Benstead (2005) consequently point out, they contribute a “critical component of the global biological diversity.” Forests also function as a ‘seemingly endless’ resource of energy and food for a majority of the Malagasy population, with its timber being appreciated beyond Malagasy borders. The list of forest processes like water or nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, decompositions, etc. seems almost endless. However, these forests are faced with a fast growing human population, needing more and more fuel wood (just to name one major human need), and must cope with enormous impacts from natural disturbances like cyclones and droughts. Together, there are incredible accumulative pressures, both human and natural, which continuously affect and reshape these ecosystems. However, forests in Madagascar “were not just born yesterday,” as Lucienne Wilmé points out in the foreword for this issue, and they are probably more resilient than we can assume. Nevertheless, if we want to maintain this broad array of forest values to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, we have to understand how forest ecosystems work, to properly implement sustainable forest management policies and applications. We should try to achieve deeper understanding of how structures and compositions affect ecological functions and processes and how the latter interact with and react to biotic and abiotic forces and dynamics, especially in times of rapid global climatic changes. Hence, the Editorial Board of the journal Madagascar Conservation & Development is happy to present an issue focused on forests, with articles dealing with the past 100 years of Malagasy forest use, development and management. Articles include discussion of recovery after a cyclone (e.g., Hudah), and disclosure of illegal extraction of precious wood in the Marojejy forest. For the future, we hope to be able to present a great variety of studies about forest related issues in this journal aiming at encouragement of more discussions and exchanges of ideas about this overarching resource termed ‘forest’. Thanks to the broad scope of the journal, it has the potential to move far beyond forest issues. Forests are an important component of Madagascar’s diverse landscape, and the more we understand about the subject the more we can appreciate its range of values. However, there are far more aspects the island of Madagascar covers in terms of conservation and developmental realms. The UN declared the year 2008 campaign as the “International Year of the Reef.” Coupled with the fact that Madagascar has a coastline of more than 4,800 km, we hope that the perspectives of oceanographers will induce some interesting projects about ocean initiatives reflecting conservation, developmental challenges and appropriate solutions in Madagascar

Madagascar - ‘down the river without a paddle’ or ‘turning the corner’?

Throughout the world, Madagascar is positively associated with a diverse range of ecosystems wherein extremely high endemism exists (>80% of species); however, the nation is also known for high degrees of illiteracy (~30%), child mortality (~10% prior to age 5) and increasing poverty levels (>70 % living on < US $2 per day). In aggregate, ecological status and socio - economic challenges have attracted widespread international attention. As a result, over the past decade Madagascar has become a primary beneficiary of global support with approximately 25$ 2 par jour) – autant de raisons qui retiennent l’attention des institutions inter - nationales de protection de la nature et de développement. Par voie de conséquence, Madagascar est un des pays les plus dépendants de l’aide extérieure avec un quart de son PIB qui provient de pays étrangers. Ces niveaux permanents d’appui global sont responsables de l’augmentation de la dépendance et de la diminution de l’autonomie. Depuis le début de la crise politique en février 2009, le degré auquel est opéré le pillage des ressources naturelles (comme l’exploitation forestière illicite) est sans précédent. Ces activités destructrices pour l’environnement (avec de nombreuses victimes) et source d’importants profits (pour une poignée de personnes) sont opérées par des opportunistes aveuglés et prêts à couvrir les demandes à court terme des marchés internationaux en livrant des produits au détriment de l’intégrité écologique et de la stabilité économique à long terme. Des gens du pays, désespérés et luttant pour survivre, sont obligés de travailler à ces tâches. Les impacts de cette exploitation sélective et peu respectueuse des ressources forestières sont répandus et connus. Par exemple, au - delà des arbres, une faune rare et endémique est chassée pour nourrir les bucherons et de nombreuses espèces de plantes vasculaires sont utilisées pour le flottage de ces rondins vers les estuaires des fleuves. Le changement de régime politique de Madagascar s’est accompagné de périodes instables capables d’attirer des exploitants illégaux de ressources. Ces activités sont responsables d‘une crise environnementale. Il y a pourtant peu d’études qui ont porté sur ce type de crise environnementale à Madagascar ou sur ce qui est fait pour y faire face. Le manque d’informations et de données portant sur ces aspects peut vraisemblablement s’expliquer par le risque inhérent à ce type d’investigations sur le terrain. Certains proposent que les liens entre les événements politiques et la crise environnementale ne sont que pures coïncidences mais d’autres pensent voir une corrélation entre le climat politique et l’augmentation de l’exploitation des ressources forestières. La question qui se pose est : qui peut être blâmé ? Il est certainement trop simple de montrer du doigt les bailleurs internationaux qui ont retiré leur confiance suite au coup d’état de mars. Madagascar se porterait probablement mieux si elle dépendait moins des financements extérieurs. Il en est de même pour le gouvernement précédent ou l’un ou l’autre qui n’ont pas prêté attention à ce qui se passait dans les parcs et les réserves. Il est difficile d’incriminer cette responsabilité directement. De nombreuses questions restent cependant ouvertes : Quelles mesures doivent être adoptées pour mieux gérer les zones écologiquement sensibles et diminuer leur vulnérabilité face à un dynamisme politique et économique ? Comment de telles crises peuvent - elles être évitées dans l’avenir ? Comment le système forestier dans son ensemble peut - il être associé à un niveau de valeur plus élevé que les produits qu’il abrite ? Des questions plus imminentes portent sur l’utilisation des ressources forestières qui sont déjà sorties des forêts. Qu’y a - t - il lieu de faire avec les rondins accumulés pour arrêter l’exploitation illégale et éviter d’entretenir la demande ? Si les médias et l’attention des acteurs de la protection de la nature de Madagascar sont absorbés par cette crise, l’avenir des actions du changement climatique sera négocié au cours du sommet du COP15 à Copenhague du 7 au 15 novembre. Madagascar enverra une délégation à Copenhague pour défendre les mécanismes de la Réduction des Émissions résultant du Déboisement et de la Dégradation forestière (REDD). Avant de s’engager dans une telle opération, il y a des questions pertinentes qui doivent être abordées et qui sont présentées par des experts en la matière qui ont été interviewés par MCD sur REDD. Je voudrai aussi souligner les propos de Barry Ferguson (voir son article REDD dans ce numéro) qui disent que « la priorité pour Madagascar est d’élaborer de nouveaux mécanismes permettant aux gens et aux ménages de bénéficier directement des revenus produits par REDD afin de compenser les pertes qu’ils consentent en acceptant de réduire le déboisement et la dégradation de la forêt. » Nous devons nous assurer que les communautés de base ne soient plus marginalisées mais qu’elles reçoivent l’intérêt qu’elles méritent, qu’elles soient au centre des actions à mener et des profits à en tirer dans la mesure où elles sont les principales actrices qui vivent et dépendent des écosystèmes qui sont tellement prisés des défenseurs de la nature. Il y a tellement de thèmes qui méritent qu’on s’y intéresse et pour lesquels des recherches plus approfondies pourraient nous permettre de mieux les comprendre. Je suis donc très heureux de vous présenter les articles qui forment ce numéro et qui rentrent tout à fait dans ce cadre en étant autant d’éléments d’un vaste édifice pour comprendre la complexité du monde. Il nous faudra comprendre un jour pourquoi une telle crise a pu éclater afin de pouvoir les prévenir et les éviter pour le bien être des gens qui vivent dans ces campagnes ainsi que pour les forêts et leurs écosystèmes uniques qui abritent une faune extraordinaire – les uns et les autres n’ont d’ailleurs souscrit à aucune police d’assurances qui pourrait rembourser les pertes en cas de dommage. Souhaitons que Madagascar puisse naviguer au mieux à Copenhague, un peu moins au fil de l’eau mais davantage en passant le cap