GPROF-NN: a neural-network-based implementation of the Goddard Profiling Algorithm

The Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission measures global precipitation at a temporal resolution of a few hours to enable close monitoring of the global hydrological cycle. GPM achieves this by combining observations from a spaceborne precipitation radar, a constellation of passive microwave (PMW) sensors, and geostationary satellites. The Goddard Profiling Algorithm (GPROF) is used operationally to retrieve precipitation from all PMW sensors of the GPM constellation. Since the resulting precipitation rates serve as input for many of the level 3 retrieval products, GPROF constitutes an essential component of the GPM processing pipeline. This study investigates ways to improve GPROF using modern machine learning methods. We present two neuralnetwork-based, probabilistic implementations of GPROF: GPROF-NN 1D, which (just like the current GPROF implementation) processes pixels individually, and GPROF-NN 3D, which employs a convolutional neural network to incorporate structural information into the retrieval. The accuracy of the retrievals is evaluated using a test dataset consistent with the data used in the development of the GPROF and GPROF-NN retrievals. This allows for assessing the accuracy of the retrieval method isolated from the representativeness of the training data, which remains a major source of uncertainty in the development of precipitation retrievals. Despite using the same input information as GPROF, the GPROF-NN 1D retrieval improves the accuracy of the retrieved surface precipitation for the GPM Microwave Imager (GMI) from 0.079 to 0.059mmh 1 in terms of mean abso- lute error (MAE), from 76.1% to 69.5% in terms of symmetric mean absolute percentage error (SMAPE) and from 0 :797 to 0 :847 in terms of correlation. The improvements for the Microwave Humidity Sounder (MHS) are from 0.085 to 0.061mmh 1 in terms of MAE, from 81% to 70.1% for SMAPE, and from 0 :724 to 0 :804 in terms of correlation. Comparable improvements are found for the retrieved hydrometeor profiles and their column integrals, as well as the detection of precipitation. Moreover, the ability of the retrievals to resolve small-scale variability is improved by more than 40% for GMI and 29% for MHS. The GPROFNN 3D retrieval further improves the MAE to 0.043mmh 1; the SMAPE to 48.67 %; and the correlation to 0:897 for GMI and 0.043mmh 1, 63.42 %, and 0:83 for MHS. Application of the retrievals to GMI observations of Hurricane Harvey shows moderate improvements when compared to co-located GPM-combined and ground-based radar measurements indicating that the improvements at least partially carry over to assessment against independent measurements. Similar retrievals for MHS do not show equally clear improvements, leaving the validation against independent measurements for future investigation. Both GPROF-NN algorithms make use of the same input and output data as the original GPROF algorithm and thus may replace the current implementation in a future update of the GPM processing pipeline. Despite their superior accuracy, the single-core runtime required for the operational processing of an orbit of observations is lower than that of GPROF. The GPROF-NN algorithms promise to be a simple and cost-efficient way to increase the accuracy of the PMW precipitation retrievals of the GPM constellation and thus improve the monitoring of the global hydrological cycle