Integrating social-ecological values into marine protected area spatial planning

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are useful tools for balancing complex social-ecological interactions and human demands on marine ecosystems when the overall intention is to support long-term social-ecological resilience. Historically, the design of MPAs have been skewed towards ecological values and principles, but recently focus has widened to the identification, protection, and inclusion of the social and economic values of key stakeholders into marine protected area spatial planning. However, there are very few applied studies to date that have achieved this, and included a wide range of stakeholder groups. Even rarer has been the integration of ecological spatial with this social data to create holistic snapshots of social and ecological assets for modelling MPA design vulnerability and adaptation. Using the Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park (PSGLMP) in New South Wales (NSW) Australia as a case study, this PhD research was grounded in social-ecological theoretical principles that utilised mixed-methods participatory mapping interviews with a diversity of stakeholder groups. These groups spanned commercial and recreational fishers, Aboriginal Traditional Owners, tourism business operators, non-government organisations (NGOs), scientists, and marine resource managers. Data were analysed using novel combinations of fuzzy-set GIS multi-criteria evaluation methods and network analyses to develop a spatial representation and in-depth analysis of stakeholder uses, values, and ecological knowledge. These outputs were then used to assess how the current MPA spatial plan supports social-ecological objectives, and make predictions of how the current plan may support long-term social-ecological resilience. The overall objective of this research thesis was to create a balanced social-ecological spatial understanding of a Marine Protected Area (MPA) as a model for expanding the values on which to develop equitable spatial management plans to support social-ecological resilience. To meet this overall objective, there were four aims that have each been written as standalone peer-reviewed articles using data collected in interviews with stakeholders. These aims were to: 1) identify the key knowledge gaps within social-ecological marine spatial planning using a literature review, 2) create a spatial understanding of the social context and dynamics of an MPA, 3) collate and develop a high-quality spatial ecological understanding of an MPA, and 4) integrate social and ecological into a predictive analysis of how a spatial management plan can support long-term social-ecological resilience in a coastal ecosystem. Collectively, these individual published chapters and the overarching theoretical outcomes of this thesis provide a novel spatial modelling method used to represent key biodiversity values and a diversity of stakeholder uses and values. The method demonstrates that MPAs within Australia and around the world are needed to protect marine ecosystems alongside supporting the social and economic needs of people who depend on their marine environments for their livelihoods and wellbeing. Outcomes of this thesis research have been applied to the review of the PSGLMP management plan, which is a pilot for assessment of better management of the NSW coastal MPAs under the NSW Marine Estate Management Strategy (2018-2028). Future priorities arising from this research include testing the method on MPAs across Australia, development of the GIS models to include greater integration of freshwater social-ecological influences, and developing these frameworks into three-dimensional models that better reflect cultural understandings and marine ecosystem processes. Overall, the outcomes of this research reflect the cultural importance and depth of knowledge of stakeholders of the marine environment, which needs to be respected and supported through the development of balanced MPAs that support social-ecological resilience

Community Change within a Caribbean Coral Reef Marine Protected Area following Two Decades of Local Management

Structural change in both the habitat and reef-associated fish assemblages within spatially managed coral reefs can provide key insights into the benefits and limitations of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). While MPA zoning effects on particular target species are well reported, we are yet to fully resolve the various affects of spatial management on the structure of coral reef communities over decadal time scales. Here, we document mixed affects of MPA zoning on fish density, biomass and species richness over the 21 years since establishment of the Saba Marine Park (SMP). Although we found significantly greater biomass and species richness of reef-associated fishes within shallow habitats (5 meters depth) closed to fishing, this did not hold for deeper (15 m) habitats, and there was a widespread decline (38% decrease) in live hard coral cover and a 68% loss of carnivorous reef fishes across all zones of the SMP from the 1990s to 2008. Given the importance of live coral for the maintenance and replenishment of reef fishes, and the likely role of chronic disturbance in driving coral decline across the region, we explore how local spatial management can help protect coral reef ecosystems within the context of large-scale environmental pressures and disturbances outside the purview of local MPA management.Funding was provided by the Saba Conservation Foundation ((SCF), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, The Australian National University and Australian Research Council. The funders had no role in study design and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Staff of the SCF were involved in data collection

Linda Lowe Quilt Collection

MS043-198

Body fineness ratio as a predictor of maximum prolonged-swimming speed in coral reef fishes

The ability to sustain high swimming speeds is believed to be an important factor affecting resource acquisition in fishes. While we have gained insights into how fin morphology and motion influences swimming performance in coral reef fishes, the role of other traits, such as body shape, remains poorly understood. We explore the ability of two mechanistic models of the causal relationship between body fineness ratio and endurance swimming-performance to predict maximum prolonged-swimming speed (Umax ) among 84 fish species from the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. A drag model, based on semi-empirical data on the drag of rigid, submerged bodies of revolution, was applied to species that employ pectoral-fin propulsion with a rigid body at U max. An alternative model, based on the results of computer simulations of optimal shape in self-propelled undulating bodies, was applied to the species that swim by body-caudal-fin propulsion at Umax . For pectoral-fin swimmers, Umax increased with fineness, and the rate of increase decreased with fineness, as predicted by the drag model. While the mechanistic and statistical models of the relationship between fineness and Umax were very similar, the mechanistic (and statistical) model explained only a small fraction of the variance in Umax . For body-caudal-fin swimmers, we found a non-linear relationship between fineness and Umax , which was largely negative over most of the range of fineness. This pattern fails to support either predictions from the computational models or standard functional interpretations of body shape variation in fishes. Our results suggest that the widespread hypothesis that a more optimal fineness increases endurance-swimming performance via reduced drag should be limited to fishes that swim with rigid bodies.MEA was partially supported by National Science Foundation Division of Environmental Biology (NSF DEB) grant 0842397 (http://www.nsf.gov/div/ index.jsp?div = DEB). CJF was partially supported by the Australian Research Council (http://www.arc.gov.au/)

Identifying spatial conservation priorities using Traditional and Local Ecological Knowledge of iconic marine species and ecosystem threats

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) can be an effective spatial approach to conservation, especially when they involve genuine consultation that considers the diversity of stakeholders. Participatory mapping and semistructured interviews were conducted with 52 stakeholders and 22 managers and scientists to identify ecological priorities and concerns across a large temperate MPA in Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park, Australia. There were 19 iconic species of fish, dolphins, whales, and sea turtles that were the focus of ecological priorities and stakeholder interactions with the marine environment. Effectiveness of the current MPA management plan for addressing stakeholder priority and concerns, was assessed using GIS spatial modelling that created fuzzy-set species distribution models (SDMs) based on Traditional and Local Ecological Knowledge as well as scientific and citizen-science survey data. These spatial models for the iconic species across the MPA were then overlaid with ecological concerns of the stakeholders to create a spatial understanding of local threats, and priority areas for targeted management. Poor water quality from terrestrial primary sources was the main concern of stakeholders, more so than in-water threats such as poor fishing practices or impacts to iconic species. While local managers and scientists were relatively reluctant to answer interview questions, there was a general misalignment in approaches to iconic species management, especially for mobile and migratory species, and misunderstanding of stakeholder perceptions of threats. Participatory mapping of social-ecological values provides a method for stakeholders and decision-makers to better understand, discuss, and adapt marine spatial management approaches that support a diversity of conservation and management priorities.Thank you to the Lesslie Research Scholarship in Landscape Conservation and Ecology grant, the Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, and the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship for funding this research project

Ecological Release from Aquatic Predation Is Associated with the Emergence of Marine Blenny Fishes onto Land

An ecological release from competition or predation is a frequent adaptive explanation for the colonization of novel environments, but empirical data are limited. On the island of Rarotonga, several blenny fish species appear to be in the process of colonizing land. Anecdotal observations have implied that aquatic predation is an important factor in prompting such amphibious fish behavior. We provide evidence supporting this hypothesis by demonstrating that amphibious blennies shift their abundance up and down the shoreline to remain above predatory fishes that periodically move into intertidal areas during high tide. A predation experiment using blenny mimics confirmed a high risk of aquatic predation for blennies, significantly higher than predation experienced on land. These data suggest that predation has played an active role in promoting terrestrial activity in amphibious blennies and provide a rare example of how ecological release from predation could drive the colonization of a novel environmentThis study was funded by a Discovery Project grant from the Australian Research Council to T.J.O. (DP120100356) and by funding from the Research School of Biology, Australian National University, to C.J.F

Culturally significant fisheries: keystones for management of freshwater social-ecological systems

Indigenous peoples of North America, Australia, and New Zealand have a long tradition of harvesting freshwater animals. Over generations of reliance and subsistence harvesting, Indigenous peoples have acquired a profound understanding of these freshwater animals and ecosystems that have become embedded within their cultural identity. We have identified trans-Pacific parallels in the cultural significance of several freshwater animal groups, such as eels, other finfish, bivalves, and crayfish, to Indigenous peoples and their understanding and respect for the freshwater ecosystems on which their community survival depends. In recognizing such cultural connections, we found that non-Indigenous peoples can appreciate the deep significance of freshwater animals to Indigenous peoples and integrate Indigenous stewardship and Indigenous ecological knowledge into effective comanagement strategies for sustainable freshwater fisheries, such as Indigenous rangers, research partnerships, and Indigenous Protected Areas. Given that many of these culturally significant freshwater species also play key ecological roles in freshwater ecosystems, their recognition and prioritization in management and monitoring approaches should help sustain the health and well-being of both the social and ecological components of freshwater ecosystems

Co-management of culturally important species:A tool to promote biodiversity conservation and human well-being

Co-management has been advocated as an effective tool to achieve natural resource conservation worldwide. Yet, the potential of co-management arrangements can fail to be realized when there is insufficient local engagement. In this perspective paper, we argue that co-management schemes focusing on culturally important species (CIS) can help overcome this issue by engaging local people's interest. To develop this theory, we explore published data on the outcomes of two management schemes, both encompassing multiple independent initiatives, to discuss CIS-management effects and benefits. We also show a compilation of CIS examples throughout the world and discuss the potential of CIS-management to reach a global audience. Based on these data, we argue that CIS-management can be an effective tool to reconcile the often intractable goals of biodiversity conservation and human welfare

Climatic forcing and larval dispersal capabilities shape the replenishment of fishes and their habitat-formingbiota on a tropical coral reef

Fluctuations in marine populations often relate to the supply of recruits by oceanic currents. Variation in these currents is typically driven by large-scale changes in climate, in particular ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillation). The dependence on large-scale climatic changes may, however, be modified by early life history traits of marine taxa. Based on eight years of annual surveys, along 150 km of coastline, we examined how ENSO influenced abundance of juvenile fish, coral spat, and canopy-forming macroalgae. We then investigated what traits make populations of some fish families more reliant on the ENSO relationship than others. Abundance of juvenile fish and coral recruits was generally positively correlated with the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), higher densities recorded during La Niña years, when the ENSO-influenced Leeuwin Current is stronger and sea surface temperature higher. The relationship is typically positive and stronger among fish families with shorter pelagic larval durations and stronger swimming abilities. The relationship is also stronger at sites on the coral back reef, although the strongest of all relationships were among the lethrinids (r = .9), siganids (r = .9), and mullids (r = .8), which recruit to macroalgal meadows in the lagoon. ENSO effects on habitat seem to moderate SOI-juvenile abundance relationship. Macroalgal canopies are higher during La Niña years, providing more favorable habitat for juvenile fish and strengthening the SOI effect on juvenile abundance. Conversely, loss of coral following a La Niña-related heat wave may have compromised postsettlement survival of coral dependent species, weakening the influence of SOI on their abundance. This assessment of ENSO effects on tropical fish and habitat-forming biota and how it is mediated by functional ecology improves our ability to predict and manage changes in the replenishment of marine populations.We thank staff at the Department of Parks and Wildlife Exmouth for field support, AIMS 2013-15 Appropriation funding, Western Australian Marine Science Institution and the Australian National University for financial suppor