Macroalgae contribute to the diet of Patella vulgata from contrasting conditions of latitude and wave exposure in the UK

Analysis of gut contents and stable isotope composition of intertidal limpets (Patella vulgata) showed a major contribution of macroalgae to their diet, along with microalgae and invertebrates. Specimens were collected in areas with limited access to attached macroalgae, suggesting a major dietary component of drift algae. Gut contents of 480 animals from 2 moderately wave exposed and 2 sheltered rocky shores in each of 2 regions: western Scotland (55–56°N) and southwest England (50°N), were analysed in 2 years (n = 30 per site per year). The abundance of microalgae, macroalgae and invertebrates within the guts was quantified using categorical abundance scales. Gut content composition was compared among regions and wave exposure conditions, showing that the diet of P. vulgata changes with both wave exposure and latitude. Microalgae were most abundant in limpet gut contents in animals from southwest sites, whilst leathery/corticated macroalgae were more prevalent and abundant in limpets from sheltered and northern sites. P. vulgata appears to have a more flexible diet than previously appreciated and these keystone grazers consume not only microalgae, but also large quantities of macroalgae and small invertebrates. To date, limpet grazing studies have focussed on their role in controlling recruitment of macroalgae by feeding on microscopic propagules and germlings. Consumption of adult algae suggests P. vulgata may also directly control the biomass of attached macroalgae on the shore, whilst consumption of drift algae indicates the species may play important roles in coupling subtidal and intertidal production

Do pharmacists contribute to patients’ management of symptoms suggestive of cancer : a qualitative study

Funding This work was supported by the Sir Hugh Linstead Fellowship Award from Pharmacy Research UK. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the consultant physicians Marianne Nicolson, Russell Petty and Les Samuel Aberdeen Royal Infirmary with patient recruitment.Peer reviewedPostprin

Traditions in Spider Monkeys Are Biased towards the Social Domain

Cross-site comparison studies of behavioral variation can provide evidence for traditions in wild species once ecological and genetic factors are excluded as causes for cross-site differences. These studies ensure behavior variants are considered within the context of a species' ecology and evolutionary adaptations. We examined wide-scale geographic variation in the behavior of spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) across five long-term field sites in Central America using a well established ethnographic cross-site survey method. Spider monkeys possess a relatively rare social system with a high degree of fission-fusion dynamics, also typical of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and humans (Homo sapiens). From the initial 62 behaviors surveyed 65% failed to meet the necessary criteria for traditions. The remaining 22 behaviors showed cross-site variation in occurrence ranging from absent through to customary, representing to our knowledge, the first documented cases of traditions in this taxon and only the second case of multiple traditions in a New World monkey species. Of the 22 behavioral variants recorded across all sites, on average 57% occurred in the social domain, 19% in food-related domains and 24% in other domains. This social bias contrasts with the food-related bias reported in great ape cross-site comparison studies and has implications for the evolution of human culture. No pattern of geographical radiation was found in relation to distance across sites. Our findings promote A. geoffroyi as a model species to investigate traditions with field and captive based experiments and emphasize the importance of the social domain for the study of animal traditions.Research at Barro Colorado Island was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation (SBR-9711161), the Leakey Foundation, the Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley (www.berkeley.edu) and a Short-term Fellowship from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (www.stri.org). Research at Corcovado National Park's Sirena Biological Station was supported by NSF award 0233248 (with R. Sussman), the Wenner-Gren Foundation, the Leakey Foundation, the American Society of Primatologists (www.asp.org), and Washington University in St. Louis (www.wustl.edu). Funds for Sirena's field lab facility were provided to L. E. Gilbert (Univ. of Texas at Austin) by NSF BSR 8315399 and a matching WWF grant, and funds for updating Sirena's trail system and installation of spatial reference system were provided by the Mellon Foundation through the Institute of Latin American Studies at UT Austin. Research at Santa Rosa and Punta Laguna was supported by The British Academy (www.britac.ac.uk), the Wenner-Gren Foundation (www.wennergren.org), the Leakey Foundation (www.leakeyfoundation.org) and the North of England Zoological Society (www.chesterzoo.org). CJS was supported by a Gladstone bursary from the University of Chester (www.chester.ac.uk) and by the Santander University Scheme (www.santander.co.uk). Research at Runaway Creek was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada

Traditions in spider monkeys are biased towards the social domain

Cross-site comparison studies of behavioral variation can provide evidence for traditions in wild species once ecological and genetic factors are excluded as causes for cross-site differences. These studies ensure behavior variants are considered within the context of a species' ecology and evolutionary adaptations. We examined wide-scale geographic variation in the behavior of spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) across five long-term field sites in Central America using a well established ethnographic cross-site survey method. Spider monkeys possess a relatively rare social system with a high degree of fission-fusion dynamics, also typical of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and humans (Homo sapiens). From the initial 62 behaviors surveyed 65% failed to meet the necessary criteria for traditions. The remaining 22 behaviors showed cross-site variation in occurrence ranging from absent through to customary, representing to our knowledge, the first documented cases of traditions in this taxon and only the second case of multiple traditions in a New World monkey species. Of the 22 behavioral variants recorded across all sites, on average 57% occurred in the social domain, 19% in food-related domains and 24% in other domains. This social bias contrasts with the food-related bias reported in great ape cross-site comparison studies and has implications for the evolution of human culture. No pattern of geographical radiation was found in relation to distance across sites. Our findings promote A. geoffroyi as a model species to investigate traditions with field and captive based experiments and emphasize the importance of the social domain for the study of animal traditions.Research at Barro Colorado Island was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation (SBR-9711161), the Leakey Foundation, the Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley (www.berkeley.edu) and a Short-term Fellowship from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (www.stri.org). Research at Corcovado National Park's Sirena Biological Station was supported by NSF award 0233248 (with R. Sussman), the Wenner-Gren Foundation, the Leakey Foundation, the American Society of Primatologists (www.asp.org), and Washington University in St. Louis (www.wustl.edu). Funds for Sirena's field lab facility were provided to L. E. Gilbert (Univ. of Texas at Austin) by NSF BSR 8315399 and a matching WWF grant, and funds for updating Sirena's trail system and installation of spatial reference system were provided by the Mellon Foundation through the Institute of Latin American Studies at UT Austin. Research at Santa Rosa and Punta Laguna was supported by The British Academy (www.britac.ac.uk), the Wenner-Gren Foundation (www.wennergren.org), the Leakey Foundation (www.leakeyfoundation.org) and the North of England Zoological Society (www.chesterzoo.org). CJS was supported by a Gladstone bursary from the University of Chester (www.chester.ac.uk) and by the Santander University Scheme (www.santander.co.uk). Research at Runaway Creek was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript

Building Energy Use and Conservation in Cycle VIII of the Texas Institutional Conservation Program

Sixty-two technical assistance (energy audit) reports by twelve different consulting firms representing fifteen independent school districts, nine hospitals, and five colleges have been reviewed to assess energy use characteristics and recommended energy saving measures. Such measures include both maintenance and operation (H&O) measures (generally regarded as "low-cost, no-cost") and energy conservation (ECH) measures (generally more expensive and requiring outside skills). Implementation cost, annual savings of energy and costs, and paybacks were reported for all M&Os and ECHs. Measures were broken down by the consulting firms according to energy use characteristics and categories, and it was determined that average costs for electricity and gas, before implementation of M&Os and ECHs, were $0.0596/KWH and$4.85/MMBTU respectively. The total implementation cost and projected annual savings for the M&Os are $73,000 and$223,000 respectively, yielding a four-month payback. The corresponding results for implementation of ECHs are $2,232,000 and$555,000, resulting in a four-year payback. Also, some obvious problems in the preparation of technical assistance reports along with the general background and implementation of the Institutional Conservation Program in Texas, resulting from the National Energy Act of 1978, are discussed

Impact of oxetane incorporation on the structure and stability of alpha-helical peptides

Peptide-based drugs combine advantages of larger biological therapeutics with those of small molecule drugs, but they generally display poor permeability and metabolic stability. Recently, we introduced a new type of peptide bond isostere, in which the backbone carbonyl is replaced with a 3-amino oxetane heterocycle, into short linear peptides with the aim of improving their therapeutic potential. In this study, we have explored the impact of oxetane modification on α-helical peptides to establish whether or not this modification is tolerated in this biologically important structural motif. The oxetane modification was introduced at two positions in a well-characterised helical peptide sequence, and circular dichroism and NMR spectroscopy were used to measure the resulting secondary structure content under different experimental conditions. Our data demonstrated that introduction of an oxetane into the peptide backbone results in a significant loss of helicity, regardless of where in the sequence the modification is placed. The molecular determinants of this destabilisation were then explored using steered molecular dynamics simulations, a computational method analogous to single molecule spectroscopy. Our simulations indicated that oxetane modification introduces a kink in the helical axis, alters the dihedral angles of residues up to three positions away from the modification, and disrupts the (i, i + 4) hydrogen bonding pattern characteristic of α-helices in favour of new, short-range hydrogen bonds. The detailed structural understanding provided in this work can direct future design of chemically modified peptides

Synthesis and functionalization of azetidine‐containing small macrocyclic peptides

Cyclic peptides are increasingly important structures in drugs but their development can be impeded by difficulties associated with their synthesis. Here, we introduce the 3-aminoazetidine (3-AAz) subunit as a new turn-inducing element for the efficient synthesis of small head-to-tail cyclic peptides. Greatly improved cyclizations of tetra-, penta- and hexapeptides (28 examples) under standard reaction conditions are achieved by introduction of this element within the linear peptide precursor. Post-cyclization deprotection of the amino acid side chains with strong acid is realized without degradation of the strained four-membered azetidine. An special feature of this chemistry is that further late-stage modification of the resultant macrocyclic peptides can be achieved via the 3-AAz unit. This is done by: (i) chemoselective deprotection and substitution at the azetidine nitrogen, or by (ii) a click-based approach employing a 2-propynyl carbamate on the azetidine nitrogen. In this way, a range of dye and biotin tagged macrocycles are readily produced. Structural insights gained by XRD analysis of a cyclic tetrapeptide indicate that the azetidine ring encourages access to the less stable, all-trans conformation. Moreover, introduction of a 3-AAz into a representative cyclohexapeptide improves stability towards proteases compared to the homodetic macrocycle

Macrocyclisation of small peptides enabled by oxetane incorporation

Cyclic peptides are an important source of new drugs but are challenging to produce synthetically. We show that head-to-tail peptide macrocyclisations are greatly improved, as measured by isolated yields, reaction rates and product distribution, by substitution of one of the backbone amide C═O bonds with an oxetane ring. The cyclisation precursors are easily made by standard solution- or solid-phase peptide synthesis techniques. Macrocyclisations across a range of challenging ring sizes (tetra-, penta- and hexapeptides) are enabled by incorporation of this turn-inducing element. Oxetane incorporation is shown to be superior to other established amino acid modifications such as N-methylation. The positional dependence of the modification on cyclisation efficiency is mapped using a cyclic peptide of sequence LAGAY. We provide the first direct experimental evidence that oxetane modification induces a turn in linear peptide backbones, through the observation of dNN (i, i + 2) and dαN (i, i + 2) NOEs, which offers an explanation for these improvements. For cyclic peptide, cLAGAY, a combination of NMR derived distance restraints and molecular dynamics simulations are used to show that this modification alters the backbone conformation in proximity to the oxetane, with the flexibility of the ring reduced and a new intramolecular H-bond established. Finally, we incorporated an oxetane into a cyclic pentapeptide inhibitor of Aminopeptidase N, a transmembrane metalloprotease overexpressed on the surface of cancer cells. The inhibitor, cCNGRC, displayed similar IC50 values in the presence or absence of an oxetane at the glycine residue, indicating that bioactivity is fully retained upon amide C═O bond replacement

Synthesis and Functionalization of Azetidine-Containing Small Macrocyclic Peptides

Cyclic peptides are increasingly important structures in drugs but their development can be impeded by difficulties associated with their synthesis. Here, we introduce the 3-aminoazetidine (3-AAz) subunit as a new turn-inducing element for the efficient synthesis of small head-to-tail cyclic peptides. Greatly improved cyclizations of tetra-, penta- and hexapeptides (28 examples) under standard reaction conditions are achieved by introduction of this element within the linear peptide precursor. Post-cyclization deprotection of the amino acid side chains with strong acid is realized without degradation of the strained four-membered azetidine. A special feature of this chemistry is that further late-stage modification of the resultant macrocyclic peptides can be achieved via the 3-AAz unit. This is done by: (i) chemoselective deprotection and substitution at the azetidine nitrogen, or by (ii) a click-based approach employing a 2-propynyl carbamate on the azetidine nitrogen. In this way, a range of dye and biotin tagged macrocycles are readily produced. Structural insights gained by XRD analysis of a cyclic tetrapeptide indicate that the azetidine ring encourages access to the less stable, all-trans conformation. Moreover, introduction of a 3-AAz into a representative cyclohexapeptide improves stability towards proteases compared to the homodetic macrocycle

Synthesis and Functionalization of Azetidine‐Containing Small Macrocyclic Peptides

Cyclic peptides are increasingly important structures in drugs but their development can be impeded by difficulties associated with their synthesis. Here, we introduce the 3-aminoazetidine (3-AAz) subunit as a new turn-inducing element for the efficient synthesis of small head-to-tail cyclic peptides. Greatly improved cyclizations of tetra-, penta- and hexapeptides (28 examples) under standard reaction conditions are achieved by introduction of this element within the linear peptide precursor. Post-cyclization deprotection of the amino acid side chains with strong acid is realized without degradation of the strained four-membered azetidine. A special feature of this chemistry is that further late-stage modification of the resultant macrocyclic peptides can be achieved via the 3-AAz unit. This is done by: (i) chemoselective deprotection and substitution at the azetidine nitrogen, or by (ii) a click-based approach employing a 2-propynyl carbamate on the azetidine nitrogen. In this way, a range of dye and biotin tagged macrocycles are readily produced. Structural insights gained by XRD analysis of a cyclic tetrapeptide indicate that the azetidine ring encourages access to the less stable, all-trans conformation. Moreover, introduction of a 3-AAz into a representative cyclohexapeptide improves stability towards proteases compared to the homodetic macrocycle