Crafting a constitutional rationale : Ruth Bader Ginsburg and gender-based equality

This dissertation analyzed the extent to which Ruth Bader Ginsburg\u27s equal protection jurisprudence reflects her conception of the judicial function. It also examined Ginsburg\u27s Influence on the development of gender-based equal protection jurisprudence. The qualitative analysis employed follows a methodological tradition consistent with the scholarship of many political scientists. Systematic analysis focused on the position Ginsburg has communicated through scholarly publications, briefs and oral arguments, speeches, and judicial opinions written through the October 1999 Supreme Court Term (and one important equal protection decision from December 2000). This study also examined scholarly commentary by political scientists and legal scholars.As scholar, advocate, and jurist Ginsburg has championed the equality of all individuals without regard to gender and has made distinctive contributions to the development of equal protection jurisprudence. Ginsburg\u27s personal experience with discrimination sensitized her to its pernicious effects. As a result, Ginsburg has sought to realize the principle of genuine equal protection under law for all individuals. In doing so, she has not been a radical activist challenging the Establishment as an outsider. Rather, perhaps due in part to the proclivity for accommodation she developed early in life, Ginsburg has sought to achieve gradual progress as an Establishment insider.Ginsburg\u27s efforts have yielded considerable success. Adhering to a minimalist,restraintist conception of the judicial function, Ginsburg incrementally orchestrated progressive and reversed one century of Supreme Court precedent. The Court interpreted the EqualProtection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to include gender classifications and later raised the standard of review beyond the most permissive analysis. Writing the majority opinion in United States v. Virginia (1996), Justice Ginsburg adhered to precedent and applied intermediate scrutiny in striking down the Virginia Military Institute\u27s single-sexadmissions policy. Ginsburg invoked race discrimination cases as authority in fashioning a remedy, perhaps incrementally extending more rigorous protection to sex classifications even though the middle tier of review remains the applicable standard for evaluating the constitutionality of gender classifications. The majority opinion in United States v. Virginia Constitutes the most recent step forward in the achievement of gender equality orchestrated by Ginsburg

A novel ecological methodology for constructing ethnic-majority life tables in the absence of individual ethnicity information.

BACKGROUND: Deprivation-specific life tables have been in use for some time, but health outcomes are also known to vary by ethnicity over and above deprivation. The mortality experiences of ethnic groups are little studied in the UK, however, because ethnicity is not captured on death certificates. METHODS: Population data for all Output Areas (OAs) in England and Wales were stratified by age-group, sex and ethnic proportion, and matched to the deaths counts in that OA from 2000 to 2002. We modelled the relationship between mortality, age, deprivation and ethnic proportion. We predicted mortality rates for an area that contained the maximum proportion of each ethnic group reported in any area in England and Wales, using a generalised linear model with a Poisson distribution adjusted for deprivation. RESULTS: After adjustment, Asian and White life expectancies between 1 and 80 years were very similar. Black men and women had lower life expectancies: men by 4 years and women by around 1.5 years. The Asian population had the lowest mortality of all groups over age 45 in women and over 50 in men, whereas the Black population had the highest rates throughout, except in girls under 15. CONCLUSIONS: We adopted a novel ecological method of constructing ethnic-majority life tables, adjusted for deprivation. There is still diversity within these three broad ethnic groups, but our data show important residual differences in mortality for Black men and women. These ethnic life tables can be used to inform public health planning and correctly account for background mortality in ethnic subgroups of the population

What might explain deprivation-specific differences in the excess hazard of breast cancer death amongst screen-detected women? Analysis of patients diagnosed in the West Midlands region of England from 1989 to 2011.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer survival is higher in less deprived women, even amongst women whose tumor was screen-detected, but reasons behind this have not been comprehensively investigated. METHODS: The excess hazard of breast cancer death in 20,265 women diagnosed with breast cancer, followed up to 2012, was estimated for screen-detected and non-screen-detected women, comparing more deprived to less deprived women using flexible parametric models. Models were adjusted for individual and tumor factors, treatment received and comorbidity. For screen-detected women, estimates were also corrected for lead-time and overdiagnosis. RESULTS: The excess hazard ratio (EHR) of breast cancer death in the most deprived group, adjusted only for age and year of diagnosis, was twice that of the least deprived among screen-detected women (EHR=2.12, 95%CI 1.48-2.76) and 64% higher among non-screen-detected women (EHR=1.64, 95%CI 1.41-1.87). Adjustment for stage at diagnosis lowered these estimates by 25%. Further adjustment had little extra impact. In the final models, the excess hazard for the most deprived women was 54% higher (EHR=1.54, 95%CI 1.10-1.98) among screen-detected women and 39% higher (EHR=1.39, 95%CI 1.20-1.59) among non-screen-detected women. CONCLUSION: A persistent socio-economic gradient in breast cancer-related death exists in this cohort, even for screen-detected women. The impact of differential lifestyles, management and treatment warrant further investigation

NASA Ares I Launch Vehicle Upper Stage Reaction Control System (ReCS) Cold Flow Development Test Overview

NASA s Ares I launch vehicle, consisting of a five segment solid rocket booster first stage and a liquid bi-propellant J2-X engine Upper Stage, is the vehicle that s been chosen to launch the Orion Crew Module, which will return humans to the Moon, Mars, and beyond. After First Stage booster separation, the Reaction Control System (ReCS), a monopropellant hydrazine system, will provide the Upper Stage element with three degrees of freedom control as needed. This paper provides an overview of the system level development testing that has taken place on the Ares I launch vehicle Upper Stage ReCS. The ReCS System Development Test Article (SDTA) was built as a flight representative water flow test article whose primary test objective was to obtain fluid system performance data to evaluate the integrate system performance characteristics and verify analytical models. Water is the industry standard for cold flow testing of hydrazine systems, because the densities are very close and the speeds of sound are well characterized. The completion of this development level test program was considered necessary to support the ReCS Critical Design Review. This paper will address the design approach taken in building the test article, the objectives of the test program, types of testing completed, general results, the ability of the program to meet the test objectives, and lessons learne

Fleshing out the data: when epidemiological researchers engage with patients and carers. Learning lessons from a patient involvement activity.

Patient and public involvement and engagement has become an essential element of health research, ensuring aims and outputs are worthwhile and relevant. However, research involving secondary data analyses does not present immediately obvious ways to involve patients and the public. Innovative approaches to ensure their involvement is meaningful and effective are required.The Cancer Survival Group cohosted a full-day meeting with the National Cancer Research Institute Consumer Forum-a group of patients and carers. This included the Forum's 'Dragons' Den': a small-group session in which their members provided insight, advice and ideas on current or planned research in the Cancer Survival Group.We investigated this activity as an example of effective patient involvement, with the aim of developing broad recommendations to improve epidemiological/quantitative research by involving patients and carers as directly as possible.In addition to quantitative data captured through evaluation forms completed after the event, we used semistructured interviews of a sample of participants to evaluate the effectiveness of the session and to learn lessons. The interviews were analysed to identify broad or recurrent themes and recommendations.Feedback was overwhelmingly positive, and some impacts on the research projects were identified. Interviewees commented on overall expectations and experiences, as well as specifics of room layout, timing of the session, composition of groups, effectiveness of the facilitation and content of discussions.We present a summary of our findings as a guide for other researchers, including recommendations for improvement gleaned from the interviews. The value to researchers of hosting and participating in such activities was clear. We developed recommendations that should help to improve future events for ourselves and for others who wish to conduct similar activities, which in turn may lead to more concrete benefits for research and patients

Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy is not associated with stillbirth in an Australian maternity population

Dissertação de mestrado em Relações Internacionais (Estudos da Paz e da Segurança), apresentada à Faculdade de Economia da Universidade de CoimbraNo seguimento de experiências de violência extrema, no contexto de regimes políticos autoritários e violações sistemáticas de direitos humanos, algumas sociedades são confrontadas com questões relativas ao legado desse passado de violência, cujo impacto se faz sentir diretamente ao nível dos seus processos de (re)conciliação e reconstrução pós-conflito: o que será lembrado e esquecido, na construção da memória e verdade(s) sobre o conflito, e na transmissão do conhecimento às gerações futuras? O que deve acontecer aos indivíduos que planearam e aos que exerceram a violência? Que tipo de crimes serão julgados? Que tipo de processos judiciais e mecanismos de reparação serão estabelecidos e com que propósitos? Como é que uma sociedade pode (re)estabelecer os seus laços sociais intra-comunitários e até que ponto é que indivíduos que se percecionam mutuamente como inimigos alguma vez se poderão reconciliar? Estas são questões relacionadas com o fenómeno de justiça de transição, que se tem vindo a estabelecer enquanto norma global para as sociedades lidarem com o passado. A justiça de transição não só é uma área pouco teorizada como a sua teoria e prática dependem, em larga medida, de pressupostos adquiridos e partilhados com o modelo liberal internacional de construção da paz (peacebuilding). Esta dissertação procura problematizar mais especificamente um destes pressupostos, a dicotomia “vítimaperpetrador” e os processos de categorização inerentes ao modelo dominante de justiça de transição, em geral, tal como este é pensado e implementado ao nível internacional e nacional. Com base no estudo de caso do Ruanda, o nosso objetivo é demonstrar as insuficiências e limitações desta visão dicotómica para interpretar dinâmicas profundas de conflito considerando, ao invés, a diversidade de experiências de violência e vitimização que esta dicotomia exclui e refletindo sobre o seu impacto nas perspectivas de (re)conciliação pós-conflito, em particular da sociedade Ruandesa. De forma a atingir o objetivo a que nos propomos, a análise desta dissertação será orientada pela seguinte pergunta de partida: de que forma, no contexto de sociedades pós-conflito, como o Ruanda, pode uma narrativa de vitimização dominante ser desafiada por excluir uma diversidade de experiências de vitimização e violência, e que repercussões pode esta contestação originar para as perspectivas de (re)conciliação nesta sociedade? A nossa análise estará alicerçada em três hipóteses: (i) a dicotomia “vítima-perpetrator” é um elemento fundamental das iniciativas de transição pós-conflito apoiados pela ONU e implementados no contexto de intervenções internacionais; (ii) o Ruanda no pósgenocídio é caracterizado por uma narrativa nacional dominante de vitimização, baseada numa dicotomia “vítima-perpetrator” que é insuficiente para compreender a diversidade de experiências de violência e vitimização vivida por diferentes grupos sociais, excluindoas e deslegitimando-as; e (iii) os processos de justiça de transição orientados segundo esta dicotomia provocam novas formas de re-vitimização, por um lado, invisibilizando e deslegitimando certas experiências de violência e vitimização e, por outro lado, tomando estas categorias socio-políticas como absolutas, limitando assim a agência política dos indivíduos e a sua (re)integração social, colocando em causa o processo de (re)conciliação em sociedades divididas em geral, e na Ruandesa em particular. A validação destas hipóteses será baseada numa abordagem qualitativa à investigação, com base na interpretação qualitativa de informação textual recolhida através de fontes primárias e secundárias, e também na análise de discurso. O enquadramento teórico e conceptual com base no qual articularemos a nossa crítica combina contributos teóricos de duas disciplinas distintas mas complementares: a psicologia social, mais precisamente o trabalho de Carlos Beristain sobre a abordagem psicosocial, e a teoria das relações internacionais, especificamente a vertente mais crítica da abordagem construtivista. Da nossa análise decorreu a validação das nossas hipóteses iniciais, sendo que demonstrámos assim como a dicotomia “vítima-perpetrator” se tem tornado um elemento fundamental nas iniciativas de justiça de transição apoiadas pela ONU; discutimos e detalhámos as narrativas dominantes de justiça de transição e vitimização estabelecidas no Ruanda e as suas dinâmicas de exclusão e, por último, refletimos sobre como os processos de justiça de transição orientados por esta dicotomia promovem processos de revitimização e limitam as perspectivas de longo prazo de reconciliação em sociedades divididas, como exemplificado pelo Ruanda no pós-genocídio.Following experiences of extreme violence, in the context of authoritarian political regimes and systematic human rights violations, societies are faced with questions regarding the legacy of that past of violence, which directly impact on the processes of (re)conciliation and post-conflict rebuilding: what will be remembered and forgotten, in the construction of memory and truth(s) relating to the conflict, and in the transmission of knowledge to younger generations? What should happen to those individuals who planned and those who enacted the violence? What will be the range of crimes under investigation? What kind of judicial processes and mechanisms for reparations will be established and with what purposes? How can a community (re)establish its social intra-community ties and to what extent and in which way can individuals who perceive each other as enemies ever reconcile? These questions fall within the scope of the phenomenon of transitional justice, which has been establishing itself as a global norm on how societies should deal with the past. Not only is the field of transitional justice under theorized but its dominant discourse on theory and praxis relies heavily on core assumptions taken for granted, many of which borrowed from liberal peacebuilding. Our dissertation seeks to problematize one of these, in particular, the “victim-perpetrator” dichotomy and the categorizing inherent to the dominant transitional justice model thought of and implemented at both international and national levels. Drawing on Rwanda as a case study, this dissertation will aim at demonstrating the insufficiencies and limitations of this dichotomised view in understanding deeper conflict dynamics, by looking into the diversity of violence and victimhood experiences that this dichotomy excludes and by reflecting upon its impact on the prospects of post-conflict (re)conciliation, specifically with regards to contemporary Rwandan society. In order to achieve our proposed aim, the analysis in this dissertation will be guided by the following research question: In what way, in the context of a post-conflict society such as Rwanda, can an established dominant victimhood narrative be challenged for excluding the diversity of victimization and violence experiences, and what repercussions may that dispute have on the prospects of (re)conciliation in this society? Our analysis will be grounded on three working hypotheses: (i) the dichotomy “victim-perpetrator” is a fundamental element in UN-sanctioned post-conflict transition Initiatives implemented in the context of international interventions; (ii) post -genocide Rwanda is characterized by a national dominant victimhood narrative, based on a “victim-perpetrator” dichotomy which is insufficient to understand the full diversity of violence and victimhood experiences from different social groups, therefore excluding and delegitimizing them; and (iii) transitional justice processes framed by this dichotomy promote new forms of victimization, on the one hand, by making invisible (and, therefore, illegitimate) certain experiences of violence and victimhood and, on the other hand, by essentializing these sociopolitical categories, which ends up limiting individuals’ political agency and social reintegration, hindering the reconciliation process in divided societies and, particularly, in Rwanda. The validation of these hypotheses will be based on a qualitative research approach, in this way relying on the qualitative interpretation of textual (qualitative) data collected both from the literature and from primary evidence as well as discourse analysis. The theoretical and conceptual framework supporting our critique combines contributions from two distinct but, complementary fields of study: social psychology, in particular the work of Carlos Beristain on the psychosocial approach, and international relations theory, drawing on the more critical strand of constructivism. Our discussion successfully validated our three initial hypotheses, therefore asserting how the “victim-perpetrator” dichotomy has become a fundamental element in UN-sanctioned transit ional justice initiatives; discussing and detailing the dominant transitional justice and victimhood narratives in Rwanda and their dynamics of exclusion and, finally, reflecting on how transitional justice processes framed by this dichotomy promote re-victimization and hinder long-term reconciliation in divided societies such as post-genocide Rwanda

Behavioral phenotypes of impulsivity related to the ANKK1 gene are independent of an acute stressor

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The A1 allele of the <it>ANKK1 Taq</it>IA polymorphism (previously reported as located in the D2 dopamine receptor (DRD2) gene) is associated with reduced DRD2 density in the striatum and with clinical disorders, particularly addiction. It was hypothesized that impulsivity represents an endophenotype underlying these associations with the <it>Taq</it>IA and that environmental stress would moderate the strength of the gene-behavior relationship.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p><it>Taq</it>IA genotyping was conducted on 72 healthy young adults who were randomly allocated to either an acute psychosocial stress or relaxation induction condition. Behavioral phenotypes of impulsivity were measured using a card-sorting index of reinforcement sensitivity and computerized response inhibition and delay discounting tasks.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Separate analyses of variance revealed associations between the A1 allele and two laboratory measures of impulsivity. The presence of the <it>Taq</it>IA allele (A1+) was associated with slower card-sorting in the presence of small financial reinforcers, but was overcome in a second administration after either a five-minute rest or psychosocial stress induction. A1+ participants also demonstrated significantly poorer response inhibition and faster response times on a computerized stop inhibition task, independent of acute stress exposure.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>These findings indicate the A1 allele is associated with an endophenotype comprising both a "rash impulsive" behavioral style and reinforcement-related learning deficits. These effects are independent of stress.</p