Economics and the Evolution of Non-Party Litigation Funding in America: How Court Decisions, the Civil Justice Process, and Law Firm Structures Drive the Increasing Need and Demand for Capital

This paper views civil litigation initiated by a party seeking money damages through the lens of the underlying economics that impact the civil justice system\u27s ability to achieve fair outcomes. It examines how access to capital has impacted the functioning of civil justice in the United States

Economics and the Evolution of Non-Party Litigation Funding in America: How Court Decisions, the Civil Justice Process, and Law Firm Structures Drive the Increasing Need and Demand for Capital

This paper views civil litigation initiated by a party seeking money damages through the lens of the underlying economics that impact the civil justice system\u27s ability to achieve fair outcomes. It examines how access to capital has impacted the functioning of civil justice in the United States

Contribution of mixing to upward transport across the tropical tropopause layer (TTL)

During the second part of the TROCCINOX campaign that took place in Brazil in early 2005, chemical species were measured on-board the high-altitude research aircraft Geophysica (ozone, water vapor, NO, NOy, CH4 and CO) in the altitude range up to 20 km (or up to 450 K potential temperature), i.e. spanning the entire TTL region roughly extending between 350 and 420 K. Here, analysis of transport across the TTL is performed using a new version of the Chemical Lagrangian Model of the Stratosphere (CLaMS). In this new version, the stratospheric model has been extended to the earth surface. Above the tropopause, the isentropic and cross-isentropic advection in CLaMS is driven by meteorological analysis winds and heating/cooling rates derived from a radiation calculation. Below the tropopause, the model smoothly transforms from the isentropic to the hybrid-pressure coordinate and, in this way, takes into account the effect of large-scale convective transport as implemented in the vertical wind of the meteorological analysis. As in previous CLaMS simulations, the irreversible transport, i.e. mixing, is controlled by the local horizontal strain and vertical shear rates. Stratospheric and tropospheric signatures in the TTL can be seen both in the observations and in the model. The composition of air above ≈350 K is mainly controlled by mixing on a time scale of weeks or even months. Based on CLaMS transport studies where mixing can be completely switched off, we deduce that vertical mixing, mainly driven by the vertical shear in the tropical flanks of the subtropical jets and, to some extent, in the the outflow regions of the large-scale convection, offers an explanation for the upward transport of trace species from the main convective outflow at around 350 K up to the tropical tropopause around 380 K

Contribution of mixing to the upward transport across the TTL

During the second part of the TROCCINOX campaign that took place in Brazil in early 2005, chemical species were measured on-board of the high altitude research aircraft Geophysica (ozone, water vapor, NO, NOy, CH4 and CO) in the altitude range up to 20 km (or up to 450 K potential temperature), i.e. spanning the TTL region roughly extending between 350 and 420 K. Analysis of transport across TTL is performed using a new version of the Chemical Lagrangian Model of the Stratosphere (CLaMS). In this new version, the stratospheric model has been extended to the earth surface. Above the tropopause, the isentropic and cross-isentropic advection in CLaMS is driven by ECMWF winds and heating/cooling rates derived from a radiation calculation. Below the tropopause the model smoothly transforms from the isentropic to hybrid-pressure coordinate and, in this way, takes into account the effect of large-scale convective transport as implemented in the ECMWF vertical wind. As with other CLaMS simulations, the irreversible transport, i.e. mixing, is controlled by the local horizontal strain and vertical shear rates. Stratospheric and tropospheric signatures in the TTL can be seen both in the observation and in the model. The composition of air above ≈350 K is mainly controlled by mixing on a time scale of weeks or even months. Based on CLaMS transport studies where mixing can be completely switched off, we deduce that vertical mixing, mainly driven by the vertical shear in the outflow regions of the large-scale convection and in the vicinity of the subtropical jets, is necessary to understand the upward transport of the tropospheric air from the main convective outflow around 350 K up to the tropical tropopause around 380 K. This mechanism is most effective if the outflow of the mesoscale convective systems interacts with the subtropical jets

Contribution of mixing to the upward transport across the TTL

During the second part of the TROCCINOX campaign that took place in Brazil in early 2005, chemical species were measured on-board of the high altitude research aircraft Geophysica (ozone, water vapor, NO, NOy, CH4 and CO) in the altitude range up to 20 km (or up to 450 K potential temperature), i.e. spanning the TTL region roughly extending between 350 and 420 K. Analysis of transport across TTL is performed using a new version of the Chemical Lagrangian Model of the Stratosphere (CLaMS). In this new version, the stratospheric model has been extended to the earth surface. Above the tropopause, the isentropic and cross-isentropic advection in CLaMS is driven by ECMWF winds and heating/cooling rates derived from a radiation calculation. Below the tropopause the model smoothly transforms from the isentropic to hybrid-pressure coordinate and, in this way, takes into account the effect of large-scale convective transport as implemented in the ECMWF vertical wind. As with other CLaMS simulations, the irreversible transport, i.e. mixing, is controlled by the local horizontal strain and vertical shear rates. Stratospheric and tropospheric signatures in the TTL can be seen both in the observation and in the model. The composition of air above ≈350 K is mainly controlled by mixing on a time scale of weeks or even months. Based on CLaMS transport studies where mixing can be completely switched off, we deduce that vertical mixing, mainly driven by the vertical shear in the outflow regions of the large-scale convection and in the vicinity of the subtropical jets, is necessary to understand the upward transport of the tropospheric air from the main convective outflow around 350 K up to the tropical tropopause around 380 K. This mechanism is most effective if the outflow of the mesoscale convective systems interacts with the subtropical jets

Surgeons' Volume-Outcome Relationship for Lobectomies and Wedge Resections for Cancer Using Video-Assisted Thoracoscopic Techniques

This study examined the effect of surgeons' volume on outcomes in lung surgery: lobectomies and wedge resections. Additionally, the effect of video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) on cost, utilization, and adverse events was analyzed. The Premier Hospital Database was the data source for this analysis. Eligible patients were those of any age undergoing lobectomy or wedge resection using VATS for cancer treatment. Volume was represented by the aggregate experience level of the surgeon in a six-month window before each surgery. A positive volume-outcome relationship was found with some notable features. The relationship is stronger for cost and utilization outcomes than for adverse events; for thoracic surgeons as opposed to other surgeons; for VATS lobectomies rather than VATS wedge resections. While there was a reduction in cost and resource utilization with greater experience in VATS, these outcomes were not associated with greater experience in open procedures

Can ‘English Premier League’ funding for PE and school sport achieve its aims?

There are a number of assertions being made for a £10 m investment by the English Premier League for primary school sport. For example, it is claimed that Physical Education plus school sport can improve cognitive functioning, concentration, behaviour, educational attainment and overall physical health. However, far from being sufficient in helping to achieve these benefits and sustain long-term activity participation, for some children, Physical Education and competitive sport may actually be counterproductive. In some instances, it may switch them off from activity altogether. Therefore, we need to understand more about which elements of this scheme work, who they work for and which circumstances they work in. Fundamentally, this will only be achieved through hard evidence and robust evaluation

STARE2: Detecting Fast Radio Bursts in the Milky Way

There are several unexplored regions of the short-duration radio transient phase space. One such unexplored region is the luminosity gap between giant pulses (from pulsars) and cosmologically located fast radio bursts (FRBs). The Survey for Transient Astronomical Radio Emission 2 (STARE2) is a search for such transients out to 7 Mpc. STARE2 has a field of view of 3.6 steradians and is sensitive to 1 millisecond transients above ~300 kJy. With a two-station system we have detected and localized a solar burst, demonstrating that the pilot system is capable of detecting short duration radio transients. We found no convincing non-solar transients with duration between 65 μs and 34 ms in 200 days of observing, limiting with 95% confidence the all-sky rate of transients above ~300 kJy to <40 sky⁻¹ yr⁻¹. If the luminosity function of FRBs could be extrapolated down to 300 kJy for a distance of 10 kpc, then one would expect the rate to be ~2 sky⁻¹ yr⁻¹

STARE2: Detecting Fast Radio Bursts in the Milky Way

There are several unexplored regions of the short-duration radio transient phase space. One such unexplored region is the luminosity gap between giant pulses (from pulsars) and cosmologically located fast radio bursts (FRBs). The Survey for Transient Astronomical Radio Emission 2 (STARE2) is a search for such transients out to 7 Mpc. STARE2 has a field of view of 3.6 steradians and is sensitive to 1 millisecond transients above ~300 kJy. With a two-station system we have detected and localized a solar burst, demonstrating that the pilot system is capable of detecting short duration radio transients. We found no convincing non-solar transients with duration between 65 μs and 34 ms in 200 days of observing, limiting with 95% confidence the all-sky rate of transients above ~300 kJy to <40 sky⁻¹ yr⁻¹. If the luminosity function of FRBs could be extrapolated down to 300 kJy for a distance of 10 kpc, then one would expect the rate to be ~2 sky⁻¹ yr⁻¹