Interactions of Trace Metals with Plastic Production Pellets in the Marine Environment

This study investigates the interactions between dissolved trace metals and plastic debris under controlled laboratory conditions by using polyethylene pellets as a model plastic particle. Specifically, the study compared virgin pellets sourced from a local moulding plant with those collected from local beaches and subjected to aging, attrition and deposition of extraneous material. Pellets collected from the coastline of Southwest England were mainly polyethylene according to Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR), although occasional polypropylene pellets were present. Additionally, FTIR was used to identify the extent of degradation of pellets according to a photo-oxidation index derived from the relative magnitudes of specific absorbance peaks, and suggests pellet colour may give an indication of polymer degradation. Acid extractions of pellets collected from the coastline of Southwest England yielded metal concentrations ranging from low ng g-1 for metals such as Cd, Ni and Cr, to 7.7, 10.3 and 290 g g-1 for Cu Pb and Zn, respectively, while Al, Fe and Mn were present on beached pellets at concentrations of up to 171, 314 and 308 g g-1, respectively. Metal concentrations exhibited a high degree of inter- and intra-site variability. Correlation of metal concentrations with the photo-oxidation index indicates that pellet age is not a reliable indicator of metal concentrations. Batch experiments where metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn) were added to suspensions of pellets in seawater and estuarine water were performed in order to understand the extent and rates of trace metal adsorption to pellets. Langmuir modelling of adsorption isotherms in seawater indicated a range of maximum values for the accumulation of trace metals on beached pellets from 10 ng g-1 to 720 ng g-1 for Cd and Pb, respectively, in seawater spiked with 5 g L-1 of each trace metal. Langmuir constants for these relationships ranged from 0.140 (Cd) to 2.67 (Ni) mL g-1. Differences between trace metal affinities for pellets collected from the environment (beached) and those obtained directly from a plastics processing facility (virgin) were also identified. Adsorption maxima for virgin pellets ranged from < 1 ng g-1 (Cd) to 300 ng g-1 (Cr) with corresponding, respective Langmuir constants of 0.413 and 0.127 mL g-1. Adsorption of trace metals to beached pellets exceeds that to virgin pellets owing to the development of viable surface sites by photo-oxidation, biofouling and deposition of fine sediment particles on the former during exposure to environmental conditions. Adsorption kinetics were modelled successfully using a pseudo first-order reversible model. Chemical response times derived from kinetic constants ranged from 1.5 – 12 h for beached pellets and 0.2 to 4.5 h for virgin pellets, and were generally lower in seawater than in river water. Applying a similar batch approach to a system simulating an estuarine salinity gradient, the controlling effects of ionic strength and pH on the adsorption of trace metals to pellets were identified. Partitioning of Cd, Co and Ni exhibited inverse relationships with salinity, with partition coefficients (KD) decreasing from values of the order 101 to 10-1 or 10-2 mL g-1 (for beached pellets) as salinity is increased from < 0.05 to 33. Chromium exhibited contrasting behaviour within the estuarine gradient, with partitioning increasing with salinity, while Pb appears to be independent of salinity within this system. Chemical modelling was used to explain the results in context of changes in trace metal speciation which occur through the estuarine gradient. The bioaccessibility of metals on beached pellets to avian species was determined using an in vitro approach. Metal bioaccessibility in a simulated avian gastric environment comprising 10 g L-1 pepsin, 0.1 M NaCl and HCl at pH 2.8 indicated metals on pellets are labile (bioaccessibility ranges from 80 % (Mn)) and may be released readily within the digestive tract. Dissolution kinetics were modelled using the Noyes-Whitney equation, from which rate constants were determined in the range 3.1 x10-4 (Cr) to 8.7 x10-1 %-1 h-1 (Mn). This study has shown, for the first time, that plastic pellets have the potential to accumulate and transport trace metals in the marine environment. Furthermore, metal accumulation on plastic pellets is controlled by estuarine master variables such that conditions which favour or limit adsorption can be defined. Pellets present a previously unreported vector for the transport of metals in the environment, and have the potential to convey metals to organisms upon ingestion. The findings of this thesis have implications for interactions between metals and plastics more generally in the marine environment

P1_6 Tipler Radiation Shielding

 This paper aims to investigate the use of copies of "Physics for Scientists and Engineers" by P. A. Tipler and G. Mosca to attenuate gamma rays. The number of copies of Tipler required to reduce a lethal beam of 100keV gamma rays delivering 8 Gy of radiation to a human being to a "safe" beam of 50 mGy was found to be 5 copies

P1_5 Combating Global Warming With Orbital Transfers

In this paper, the orbital radius required to cool the Earth by 2K is determined using the Stefan-Boltzmann Law. The delta-V required to achieve this new orbital radius using a Hohmann Transfer manoeuvre is then determined and the mass of fuel required for such a manoeuvre is determined using Tsiolkovsky’s rocket equation. The total mass of fuel required is found to be 0.04374 Earth masses.

P1_4 Global Warming: Effects on LEO Satellites

Satellites in low Earth orbits are subject to drag forces from the Earth’s atmosphere, these forces deorbit the satellites over time. The effect of global warming on the rate at which a satellite will deorbit is investigated in this paper. It is found that, while a simplified model would predict a faster deorbit, this is not the case due to interactions at the molecular level

P1_8 Ice Ice, Maybe

 Many types of water ice can have semiconducting properties, particularly when doped, due to their crystalline structure. These properties may possibly lend the material to being used to create photovoltaic cells on distant planetary bodies. A band gap of 7.8 eV for cubic ice and 5.15 eV for ice XI give a solar spectral radiance of 1.51x10-11 W sr-1 m-2 Hz-1 and 9.45x10-10 W sr-1 m-2 Hz-1 respectively. This gives a very low amount of useful radiation at Europa and an even smaller amount 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, bringing extreme doubt on the use of this novel method

P1_3 The Double Pendulum and Lunar Seismometry

This paper aims to show that through the properties of the Laplace transformation into ‘s’ space, the coupled differential equations of the double pendulum, as shown in figure 1 [1] can be solved with relative ease and show interesting properties and applications of the system for variable values of gravity. These include lunar seismometry and consideration of similar experiments on other astronomical bodies

Influences of androgenisation and personality on female sexual orientation, behaviour, and arousal

The present work investigated potential hormonal influences on sex differences in sexual arousal, with most men being aroused to one sex, and most women being aroused to both sexes. Within women, I also investigated whether prenatal hormonal influences explain why homosexual women have more male-typical arousal, and are more masculine, than heterosexual women. Chapter 1 summarises the literature. In Chapter 2, I investigated whether sex differences in sexual arousal, reflected in genital response and pupil dilation to sexual stimuli, are related to the sex difference in prenatal androgen exposure, reflected in a putative biomarker, the second to fourth finger digit ratio (2D:4D). In Chapter 3, I examined whether homosexual women's male-typical sexual arousal is explained by their male-typical 2D:4D, as compared to heterosexual women. Chapter 4 investigated whether homosexual women's behavioural masculinity is explained by their male-typical 2D:4D. Finally, Chapter 5 explored an alternative explanation for the sex difference in arousal: That unlike men, women may empathise with actors depicted in explicit sexual stimuli, and thus mirror female actors' sexual arousal by becoming aroused themselves. Overall, we confirmed hypothesised sex differences in sexual arousal, empathy, and 2D:4D. However, there was no evidence that these sex differences were interlinked. In women, we confirmed sexual orientation differences in sexual arousal and masculinity-femininity, but failed to replicate the previously reported sexual orientation difference in 2D:4D. Moreover, there was no evidence that women's sexual arousal patterns or masculinity were related to their 2D:4D. In sum, studied sex and sexual orientation differences might be driven by other factors than prenatal androgen exposure. However, the limitations of 2D:4D need to be considered. Furthermore, sex differences in empathy does not serve as an alternative explanation (alternative to androgen exposure) for sex differences in sexual arousal patterns

P1_2 The Temperature of Jupiter

It is well known that there is a discrepancy between Jupiter’s observed surface temperature, quantified through infrared emissions, and the theorised temperature based on the approximation that Jupiter acts as a black body. This paper will attempt to assess the additional contribution of three popular factors to the excess heat output of Jupiter; gravitational collapse, heat emission from radio-isotopes and the differentiation of He and

P1_1 "Prepare for Titanfall"

In the popular digital entertainment title Titanfall, “titans”, or large metal exoskeletons are dropped onto the battlefield on Earth, from a region in low earth orbit (LEO) at approximately 160 km. From start to finish, this process takes approximately 10 seconds in-game, subsequently requiring an average velocity of around 1.6x104 ms-1. This paper aims to incorporate the often neglected aspect of quadratic drag into the dynamical calculations in order to show that the time required for this movement is closer to 223.2 seconds once the correct atmospheric impacts have been accounted for