Epidemiological investigation of foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks in a Vietnamese bear rescue centre

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks affecting Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) and a Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) were previously reported in 2011 in two housing facilities at a Vietnamese bear rescue centre. In this study, demographic data of all animals housed in the centre at the time of the outbreaks (n = 79) were collected. Blood samples drawn from 23 bears at different timepoints were tested for FMDV-specific antibodies targeting using a non-structural protein (NSP) ELISA and by virus neutralisation test (VNT). The relationship between seroconversion and clinical signs was explored and epidemic curves and transmission diagrams were generated for each outbreak, where FMD cases were defined as animals showing FMD clinical signs. Outbreak-specific attack rates were 18.75 and 77.77%, with corresponding basic reproduction numbers of 1.11 and 1.92, for the first and second outbreaks, respectively. Analyses of risk factors showed that after adjusting for sex there was strong evidence for a decrease in odds of showing clinical signs per year of age. All samples collected from bears before the outbreak tested negative to NSP and VNT. All cases tested positive to VNT following onset of clinical signs and remained positive during the rest of the follow up period, while only 6 out of 17 cases tested positive to NSP after developing clinical signs. Six animals without clinical signs were tested post outbreaks; five seroconverted using VNT and three animals were seropositive using NSP ELISA. This study provides initial epidemiological parameters of FMD in captive bears, showing that FMDV is easily spread between bears in close proximity and can cause clinical and subclinical disease, both of which appear to induce rapid and long-lasting immunity

A field study evaluating the humoral immune response in Mongolian sheep vaccinated against sheeppox virus

Sheeppox is a transboundary disease of sheep caused by infection with the capripoxvirus sheeppox virus (SPPV). Sheeppox is found in Africa, the Middle East and Asia and is characterised by fever, multifocal cutaneous raised lesions, and death, with substantial negative impact on affected flocks. Vaccination with live attenuated capripoxvirus (CPPV) strains is an effective and widely used means of controlling sheeppox outbreaks, however there are few reports of post-vaccination field surveillance studies of sheeppox. This study used a commercially available ELISA and a fluorescence-based neutralisation assay (FVNT) to examine quantitative and temporal features of the humoral response of sheep vaccinated with a live attenuated CPPV strain in Mongolia. 400 samples were tested using the ELISA, and a subset of 45 also tested with the FVNT. There was substantial agreement between the FVNT and ELISA tests. Antibodies to CPPV were detected between 40 and 262 days post vaccination. There was no significant difference between serological status (positive / negative) and sex or age, however an inverse correlation was found between the length of time since vaccination and serological status. Animals between 90 and 180 days post-vaccination were more likely to be positive than animals greater than 180 days post vaccination. This data provides temporal parameters to consider when planning sheeppox post-vaccination monitoring programmes. In summary, our results show a commercial CPPV ELISA kit is a robust and reliable assay for use in resource-restricted low and low-middle income countries for post CPPV vaccination surveillance on a regional or national level.The attached .xls file contains all raw data used in the associated publication, " A comparative serological field study evaluating the humoral immune response in Mongolian sheep vaccinated against sheeppox virus." The dataset identifies all individual sheep by a unique identification number (ID_num). Each unique ID_num is associated with relevant metadata: Province name, Sum name, herder name coded (Herded_Id), animal species, age of the animal, in years, when sampled (Age), sex of the animal "F" or "M" (Sex), date when the animal was sampled (Date_sample_collected), date when the animal was vaccinated for sheeppox according to the vaccination records (Date_vaccinated_raw data), and for samples in which the exact date of vaccination was not available and a range of potential time was given, the midpoint date within this range (Date_vaccinated_midpoint), animals for which vaccination date was not available receive an "NA" value; time from vaccination to sampled in days (Time_from_vaccinated_midpoint); %S/P values for the ELISA test conducted in the Mongolia lab (Ag_ELISA_SCVL_OD_SP) and %S/P values for the ELISA test conducted in the UK lab (Ag_ELISA_TPI_OD_SP), results from the ELISA test classified as binary variable "Positive" or "Negative" (Ag_ELISA_SCVL_bin and Ag_ELISA_TPI_bin); titres from the fluorescence-based neutralisation assay (FVNT Titre) and results from the FVNT test classified as binary variable ("Positive" or "Negative"), all animals that were not tested by FVNT receive an "NA" value in these columns. Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BBS/E/I/00007031Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BB/E/I/00007036Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BB/E/I/00007037Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BBS/E/I/00007039Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BB/J004324/1Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BBS/E/D/20002173Funding provided by: Horizon 2020Crossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100007601Award Number: 773701Funding provided by: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations*Crossref Funder Registry ID: Award Number: TCP/MON/3603Funding provided by: IdVet*Crossref Funder Registry ID: Award Number: Funding provided by: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsCrossref Funder Registry ID: Award Number: TCP/MON/3603Funding provided by: IdVetCrossref Funder Registry ID:Blood samples from sheep and associated data were collected as part of the post-vaccination surveillance programme for sheeppox implemented by the Mongolian General Authority for Veterinary Services (GAVS) in 2016

Socio-economic impact of Foot-and-Mouth Disease outbreaks and control measures:An analysis of Mongolian outbreaks in 2017

Mongolia is a large landlocked country in central Asia and has one of the highest per capita livestock ratios in the world. During 2017 reported Foot and Mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks in Mongolia increased considerably, prompting widespread disease control measures. This study estimates the socio‐economic impact of FMD and subsequent control measures on Mongolian herders. The analysis encompassed quantification of the impact on subsistence farmers’ livelihoods and food security and estimation of the national level gross losses due to reaction and expenditure during 2017. Data were collected from 112 herders across eight Provinces that reported disease. Seventy of these herders had cases of FMD, while 42 did not have FMD in their animals but were within quarantine zones. Overall, 86/112 herders reported not drinking milk for a period of time and 38/112 reduced their meat consumption. Furthermore, 55 herders (49.1%) had to borrow money to buy food, medicines and/or pay bills or bank loans. Among herders with FMD cases, the median attack rate was 31.7%, 3.8% and 0.59% in cattle, sheep and goats respectively, with important differences across Provinces. Herders with clinical cases before the winter had higher odds of reporting a reduction in their meat consumption. National level gross losses due to FMD in 2017 were estimated using government data. The estimate of gross economic loss was 18.4 billion Mongolian‐tugriks (US$7.35 million) which equates to approximately 0.65% of the Mongolian GDP. The FMD outbreaks combined with current control measures has negatively impacted herders’ livelihoods (including herders with and without cases of FMD) which is likely to reduce stakeholder advocacy. Possible strategies that could be employed to ameliorate the negative effects of the current control policy were identified. The findings and approach are relevant to other FMD endemic regions aiming to control the disease

Financial impact of sheeppox and goatpox and estimated profitability of vaccination for subsistence farmers in selected northern states of Nigeria

Sheeppox and goatpox (SGP) are important transboundary diseases, endemic in Nigeria, causing severe clinical manifestations, impacting production, and resulting in economic losses. Vaccination is an effective control measure against SGP in endemic countries but is not currently implemented in Nigeria. This study aimed to estimate SGP financial impact and assess economic viability of SGP vaccination at the herd and regional level under different scenarios in Northern Nigeria. Integrated stochastic production and economic herd models were developed for transhumance and sedentary herds. Models were run for two disease scenarios (severely and slightly affected) and with and without vaccination, with data parameterisation from literature estimates, field survey and authors’ experience. Herd-level net financial impact of the disease and its vaccination was assessed using gross margin (GM) and partial budget analyses. These were then used to assess regional financial impact of disease and profitability of a 3-year vaccination programme using a cost-benefit analysis. The regional-analysis was performed under 0 %, 50 % and 100 % government subsidy scenarios; as a standalone programme or in combination with other existing vaccination programmes; and for risk-based and non-risk-based intervention. Median SGP losses per reproductive female were £27 (90 % CI: £31-£22), and £5 (90 % CI: £7-£3), in sedentary, and £30 (90 % CI: £41-21), and £7 (90 % CI: £10-£3), in transhumance herds, for severely and slightly affected scenarios respectively. Selling animals at a reduced price, selling fewer young animals, and reduced value of affected animals remaining in the herd were the greatest contributors to farmer’s SGP costs. SGP-affected herds realised a GM reduction of up to 121 % in sedentary and 138 % in transhumance. Median estimated regional SGP cost exceeded £24 million. Herd-level median benefits of vaccination per reproductive female were £23.76 (90 % CI: £19.28-£28.61), and £4.01 (90 % CI: £2.36-£6.31), in sedentary, and £26.85 (90 % CI: £17.99-£37.02) and £7.45 (90 % CI: £3.47-£15.14) in transhumance herds, in severely and slightly affected scenarios, respectively. Median benefit: cost ratio (BCR) for severely affected herds at 50% subsidies was 6.62 (90% CI: 5.30-8.90) for sedentary, and 5.14 (90% CI: 3.31-13.81) for transhumance herds. The regional SGP vaccination standalone programme BCR: 7–27, regional SGP vaccination with existing vaccination programme BCR: 7–228 and vaccinating high-risk areas BCR: 19–439 were found to be economically viable for all subsidy levels explored. Vaccinating low-risk areas only realised benefits with 100 % of government subsidies. This study further increases understanding of SGP’s impact within Northern Nigeria and demonstrates vaccination is an economically viable control strategy at the herd-level and also regionally, depending on the strategy and government subsidy levels considered

Investigation Into the Humaneness of Slaughter Methods for Guinea Pigs (Cavia porcelus) in the Andean Region

Guinea pigs (Cavia porcelus) are an important source of nonhuman animal protein in the Andean region of South America. Specific guidelines regarding the welfare of guinea pigs before and during slaughter have yet to be developed. This study critically assessed the humaneness of 4 different stunning/slaughter methods for guinea pigs: cervical neck dislocation (n = 60), electrical head-only stunning (n = 83), carbon dioxide (CO(2)) stunning (n = 21), and penetrating captive bolt (n = 10). Following cervical neck dislocation, 97% of guinea pigs had at least 1 behavioral or cranial/spinal response. Six percent of guinea pigs were classified as mis-stunned after electrical stunning, and 1% were classified as mis-stunned after captive bolt. Increased respiratory effort was observed during CO(2) stunning. Apart from this finding, there were no other obvious behavioral responses that could be associated with suffering. Of the methods assessed, captive bolt was deemed the most humane, effective, and practical method of stunning guinea pigs. Cervical neck dislocation should not be recommended as a slaughter method for guinea pigs

Using mixed methods to investigate factors influencing reporting of livestock diseases: a case study among smallholders in Bolivia

Livestock disease surveillance is particularly challenging in resource-scarce settings, where disease events are often unreported. Surveillance performance is determined as much by the quantifiable biological attributes of the disease, as it is by motivations and barriers perceived by livestock keepers for disease reporting. Mixed methods designs, which integrate the collection, analysis and interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data in a single study, are increasingly used across different disciplines. These designs allow for a deeper exploration of the topic under investigation, than can be achieved by either approach alone. In this study a mixed methods design was used in order to gain a greater understanding of the factors that influence reporting of livestock diseases in Bolivia. There is a need to strengthen passive surveillance in this country, among other reasons as part of an eradication program for Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD). Findings revealed livestock keepers in the study area were extremely unlikely to report the occurrence of livestock health events to the Official Veterinary Services (OVS). Communication outside the local community occurs more often through alternative routes and this is positively correlated with disease awareness. The main barriers to disease reporting identified, were a lack of institutional credibility and the conflicting priorities of the OVS and livestock keepers. As for other animal and human diseases across the developing world, passive surveillance of livestock diseases in Bolivia should be enhanced; this is urgent in view of the current FMD eradication program. Increasing timeliness and smallholders’ participation requires a detailed understanding of their likely actions and perceived barriers towards disease reporting. These insights are most likely to be developed through a holistic mixed methods approach of quantitative and qualitative analyses

Using mixed methods to assess food security and coping strategies: a case study among smallholders in the Andean region

International organizations and national governments in resource-scarce settings regularly support programs for the control of animal diseases with the aim of improving smallholder food security. However, the impact of such disease control programs on smallholder food security remains unclear. Mixed methods designs that integrate the collection, analysis and interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data in a single study, are increasingly being used to achieve deeper explorations of complex topics. We propose a mixed methods design to assess the four pillars of food security and coping strategies among smallholders. The methodology is illustrated with a case study in the context of a transnational program for the control of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in the Andean region, involving interviews with 632 smallholders in three countries. Quantitative data were analysed using multivariate analysis to describe smallholders’ profiles. Food Consumption Score (FCS) was calculated for each household. The qualitative phase involved developing themes to characterise these smallholders’ experiences using Thematic Analysis. Food acquisition capacity and coping strategies varied greatly across smallholders. Only nine (1.4%) of households had a FCS below the acceptable threshold, however, food stability was compromised across study areas. Household production, financial capacity, household demographics and food prices were the main factors influencing variation in food consumption. The case study presented here illustrates the use of a mixed methods approach to assess the four dimensions of food security and categorise key differences across smallholders during a single visit