Empirical evidence for musical syntax processing? Computer simulations reveal the contribution of auditory short-term memory

During the last decade, it has been argued that (1) music processing involves syntactic representations similar to those observed in language, and (2) that music and language share similar syntactic-like processes and neural resources. This claim is important for understanding the origin of music and language abilities and, furthermore, it has clinical implications. The Western musical system, however, is rooted in psychoacoustic properties of sound, and this is not the case for linguistic syntax. Accordingly, musical syntax processing could be parsimoniously understood as an emergent property of auditory memory rather than a property of abstract processing similar to linguistic processing. To support this view, we simulated numerous empirical studies that investigated the processing of harmonic structures, using a model based on the accumulation of sensory information in auditory memory. The simulations revealed that most of the musical syntax manipulations used with behavioral and neurophysiological methods as well as with developmental and cross-cultural approaches can be accounted for by the auditory memory model. This led us to question whether current research on musical syntax can really be compared with linguistic processing. Our simulation also raises methodological and theoretical challenges to study musical syntax while disentangling the confounded low-level sensory influences. In order to investigate syntactic abilities in music comparable to language, research should preferentially use musical material with structures that circumvent the tonal effect exerted by psychoacoustic properties of sounds

Ustekinumab as Induction and Maintenance Therapy for Crohn’s Disease

BACKGROUND Ustekinumab, a monoclonal antibody to the p40 subunit of interleukin-12 and inter-leukin-23, was evaluated as an intravenous induction therapy in two populations with moderately to severely active Crohn’s disease. Ustekinumab was also evaluated as subcutaneous maintenance therapy. METHODS We randomly assigned patients to receive a single intravenous dose of ustekinumab (either 130 mg or approximately 6 mg per kilogram of body weight) or placebo in two induction trials. The UNITI-1 trial included 741 patients who met the criteria for primary or secondary nonresponse to tumor necrosis factor (TNF) antagonists or had unacceptable side effects. The UNITI-2 trial included 628 patients in whom conventional therapy failed or unacceptable side effects occurred. Patients who completed these induction trials then participated in IM-UNITI, in which the 397 patients who had a response to ustekinumab were randomly assigned to receive subcutaneous maintenance injections of 90 mg of ustekinumab (either every 8 weeks or every 12 weeks) or placebo. The primary end point for the induction trials was a clinical response at week 6 (defined as a decrease from baseline in the Crohn’s Disease Activity Index [CDAI] score of ≥100 points or a CDAI score <150). The primary end point for the maintenance trial was remission at week 44 (CDAI score <150). RESULTS The rates of response at week 6 among patients receiving intravenous ustekinumab at a dose of either 130 mg or approximately 6 mg per kilogram were significantly higher than the rates among patients receiving placebo (in UNITI-1, 34.3%, 33.7%, and 21.5%, respectively, with P≤0.003 for both comparisons with placebo; in UNITI-2, 51.7%, 55.5%, and 28.7%, respectively, with P<0.001 for both doses). In the groups receiving maintenance doses of ustekinumab every 8 weeks or every 12 weeks, 53.1% and 48.8%, respectively, were in remission at week 44, as compared with 35.9% of those receiving placebo (P = 0.005 and P = 0.04, respectively). Within each trial, adverse-event rates were similar among treatment groups. CONCLUSIONS Among patients with moderately to severely active Crohn’s disease, those receiving intravenous ustekinumab had a significantly higher rate of response than did those receiving placebo. Subcutaneous ustekinumab maintained remission in patients who had a clinical response to induction therapy. (Funded by Janssen Research and Development; ClinicalTrials.gov numbers, NCT01369329, NCT01369342, and NCT01369355.

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Applications of supercritical fluid processing to environmental control

Environmental control and waste remediation are of immediate technological and political interest. One technology which has great potential is contaminant removal and separation with supercritical fluids (SCF's) or supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). In order to take advantage of this technology, both a fundamental understanding of phase equilibria and applicable engineering design data are required. This report documents an extensive study into both aspects culminating in the design and economic evaluation of a SCF regeneration process for granular activated carbon (GAC). We determined solubilities of relatively non-volatile solid compounds in supercritical fluid solvents, exploring effects of solvent properties, solute properties, and the nature of the critical region. Cosolvents added to an SCF were shown to enhance solubilities and increase selectivities through specific intermolecular interactions. Vapor pressure measurements and spectroscopic investigations also aided the understanding of solubility enhancement. The data were used to test and develop equations of state for calculating phase equilibria in systems containing a supercritical fluid. The ability of supercritical CO2 to remove model contaminant compounds from GAC and subsequently drop out most of the contaminant in a liquid phase has been investigated in a pilot scale apparatus. Typical desorption profiles indicate approximately 85% removal of contaminants 2-chlorophenol and toluene from the carbon. The presence of water on the GAC was shown to inhibit slightly the efficiency of the desorption. The desorption results have been interpreted with a generalized desorption-mass transfer model. The results of the pilot scale studies have been applied to the design of a fixed-site GAC regeneration unit consisting of a three element desorber with two stage flash separation. Optimization of the process centers around minimizing the cost of recycling the SCF through an efficient recompression scheme and regeneration cycle configuration in the desorber unit. An economic evaluation shows a processing cost of lO.6e/lb GAC which compares favorably with thermal regeneration and incineration. This non-destructive process allows re-use of the GAC while maintaining a high adsorbate capacity, which reduces carbon replacement costs and significantly decreases the need for carbon disposal by landfill or incineration.EPA Cooperative Agreement EPA CR 81258

Experimental assessment of polyphonic tones with cochlear implants

Hypothesis: We hypothesized that cochlear implant (CI) users are able to discriminate tones consisting of 1 and 2 modulation frequencies when the stimuli are applied through direct electrical stimulation. Background: Music perception is a very challenging task for CI users. In music, multiple tones often occur simultaneously, an essential feature of harmony. Proper encoding of simultaneous tones is crucial to musical perception and appreciation. With current implant processing strategies, CI users are severely impaired in the perception of pitch and polyphony. Methods: The ability of CI users to identify the number of simultaneous tones was assessed. Stimuli were applied with direct electrical stimulation. Stimuli with 1 modulation frequency were applied on a basal, a middle, and an apical electrode to determine if there was an effect of cochlear region. Stimuli with 2 modulation frequencies were applied on combinations of an apical electrode together with a basal or a middle electrode. Additionally, 2 modulations frequencies were presented at the same time on an apical electrode only. Results: Results demonstrate that subjects were generally able to identify the number of modulation frequencies in the presented stimuli. Performance for 1 modulation frequency stimuli was significantly above chance level on all 3 electrodes tested. Performance was best on the apical and the middle electrode, followed by the basal electrode. Subjects were also able to identify 2 modulation frequencies significantly above chance level on all 3 combinations tested. Performance was best on combination apical-basal followed by apical-middle. Performance was worst when 2 modulation frequencies were applied on an apical electrode only, but it was still significantly above chance level. Conclusion: If sound processing strategies were to use concurrent modulation frequencies on multiple or single electrodes, then possibly polyphonic tones would be better perceived by CI users yielding better music and language perception

Sound-induced stabilization of breathing and moving

International audienc

Sound-induced stabilization of breathing and moving

In humans and other animals, the locomotor and respiratory systems are coupled together through mechanical, neurophysiological, and informational interactions. At a macroscopic observer-environment level, these three types of interactions produce locomotor-respiratory coupling (LRC), whose dynamics are evaluated in this paper. A formal analysis of LRC is presented, exploiting tools from synchronization theories and nonlinear dynamics. The results of two recent studies, in which participants were instructed to cycle or exhale at a natural frequency or in synchrony with an external rhythmic sound, are discussed. The metronome was either absent or present (study 1) and close to or far from the natural frequency of the cycling and breathing systems (study 2). The results evidenced a stabilization of cycling, breathing, and LRC when sound was present compared to when it was absent. A decrease in oxygen consumption was also observed, accompanying the increase in sound-induced LRC stabilization. These results obtained with a simple rhythmic metronome beat have consequences for exercising while listening to music; the consequences are further explored here

Perception of polyphony with cochlear implants for 2 and 3 simultaneous pitches

Hypothesis: It was hypothesized that cochlear implant (CI) subjects would be able to correctly identify one, two and three simultaneous pitches through direct electrical stimulation. We further hypothesized that the location on the implant array and the fundamental frequency of the pitches would have an impact on the performance. Background: "They gave me back speech but not music." is a sentence commonly heard by CI subjects. One of the reasons is that in music, multiple streams are frequently played at the same time which is an essential feature of harmony. Current CI speech processors do not allow CI users to perceive such complex polyphonic sounds. Methods: In the present study the authors assessed the ability of CI subjects to perceive simultaneous modulation frequencies based on direct electrical stimulation. Ten CI subjects were asked to identify one, two and three simultaneous pitches applied on different electrodes using sinusoidal amplitude modulation. All stimuli were loudness balanced before the actual identification task. Results: Subjects were able to identify one, two and three simultaneous pitches. The further the distance between the two electrodes, the better was the performance in the two-pitch condition. The distance between the modulation frequencies had a significant effect on the performance in the two and three pitch condition. Conclusion: Subjects are able to identify complex polyphonic stimuli based on the number of active electrodes. The additional polyphonic rate pitch cue improves performance in some conditions