Non-reductive Physicalism, Irreducibility of the Mental and the Problem of Mental Causation : A study of Donald Davidson's and Georg Henrik von Wright's positions in the philosophy of mind

In this study I consider what kind of perspective on the mind body problem is taken and can be taken by a philosophical position called non-reductive physicalism. Many positions fall under this label. The form of non-reductive physicalism which I discuss is in essential respects the position taken by Donald Davidson (1917-2003) and Georg Henrik von Wright (1916-2003). I defend their positions and discuss the unrecognized similarities between their views. Non-reductive physicalism combines two theses: (a) Everything that exists is physical; (b) Mental phenomena cannot be reduced to the states of the brain. This means that according to non-reductive physicalism the mental aspect of humans (be it a soul, mind, or spirit) is an irreducible part of the human condition. Also Davidson and von Wright claim that, in some important sense, the mental aspect of a human being does not reduce to the physical aspect, that there is a gap between these aspects that cannot be closed. I claim that their arguments for this conclusion are convincing. I also argue that whereas von Wright and Davidson give interesting arguments for the irreducibility of the mental, their physicalism is unwarranted. These philosophers do not give good reasons for believing that reality is thoroughly physical. Notwithstanding the materialistic consensus in the contemporary philosophy of mind the ontology of mind is still an uncharted territory where real breakthroughs are not to be expected until a radically new ontological position is developed. The third main claim of this work is that the problem of mental causation cannot be solved from the Davidsonian - von Wrightian perspective. The problem of mental causation is the problem of how mental phenomena like beliefs can cause physical movements of the body. As I see it, the essential point of non-reductive physicalism - the irreducibility of the mental - and the problem of mental causation are closely related. If mental phenomena do not reduce to causally effective states of the brain, then what justifies the belief that mental phenomena have causal powers? If mental causes do not reduce to physical causes, then how to tell when - or whether - the mental causes in terms of which human actions are explained are actually effective? I argue that this - how to decide when mental causes really are effective - is the real problem of mental causation. The motivation to explore and defend a non-reductive position stems from the belief that reductive physicalism leads to serious ethical problems. My claim is that Davidson's and von Wright's ultimate reason to defend a non-reductive view comes back to their belief that a reductive understanding of human nature would be a narrow and possibly harmful perspective. The final conclusion of my thesis is that von Wright's and Davidson's positions provide a starting point from which the current scientistic philosophy of mind can be critically further explored in the future.Tutkimuksessani tarkastelen mieli-ruumis ongelmaa Donald Davidsonin (1916-2003) ja Georg Henrik von Wrightin (1916-2003) ei-reduktiivisen fysikalismin näkökulmasta. Osoitan, että Davidsonin ja von Wrightin näkemyksien välillä on useita yhtäläisyyksiä, jotka ovat aiemmassa keskustelussa jääneet vaille huomiota. Davidsonin ja von Wrightin näkemyksiä soveltaen puolustan ei-reduktiivista lähestymistapaa mielen filosofisiin ongelmiin tuoden esiin reduktiivisen näkemyksen haasteita ja ongelmia. Ei-reduktiivinen fysikalismi pyrkii yhdistämään kaksi näkemystä. Toisaalta ajatuksen siitä, että todellisuus on läpikotaisin fysikaalinen ja toisaalta näkemyksen, jonka mukaan mentaalisia ilmiöitä ei voida palauttaa aivojen tiloihin. Tällainen fysikalismi sitoutuu siis käsitykseen, että mieli on jotain mitä ei voida kuvata pelkästään fysikaalisten käsitteiden avulla. Sekä von Wright että Davidson väittävät, että mielen ja aivojen välillä on pysyvä käsitteellinen kuilu, jota on mahdotonta kuroa umpeen. Tutkimuksessani esitän, että heidän perustelunsa tälle väitteelle ovat uskottavia. Toinen keskeinen johtopäätökseni on, että Davidsonin ja von Wrightin argumentit fysikalismin puolesta eivät ole vakuuttavia. Väitteeni on, että vaikka fysikalistinen ontologia näyttää olevan modernissa mielenfilosofiassa laajasti hyväksytty näkökanta, filosofiset argumentit sen puolesta ovat epätyydyttäviä. Mielen olemassaolon tapa on edelleen mysteeri. Työni kolmas väite on, että Davidsonin ja von Wrightin teorioiden näkökulmasta katsottuna mentaalisen kausaation ongelma jää ratkaisemattomaksi. Mentaalisen kausaation ongelma palautuu kysymykseksi siitä, miten uskomusten ja toiveiden kaltaiset mentaaliset ilmiöt voivat aiheuttaa kehon liikkeitä. Mikäli ei-reduktiivista fysikalismia seuraten uskomme, että mentaaliset ilmiöt eivät palaudu aivojen kausaalisesti vaikuttaviin tiloihin, herää kysymys mikä oikeuttaa uskomme mentaalisten tilojen kausaaliseen voimaan? Miten ratkaista ovatko mentaaliset tilat todella kausaalisesti vaikuttavia? Väitteeni on, että mentaalisen kausaation ongelma tulisi muotoilla uudelleen kysymykseksi siitä, miten voimme ratkaista ovatko mentaalisiin tiloihin viittaavat selityksemme tosia. Tutkimuksessani esitän lyhyesti uuden mallin tähän mentaalisen kausaation uuteen ongelmaan ja tarkoitukseni on kehittää tätä mallia edelleen tulevaisuudessa. Motivaatio puolustaa ei-reduktiivista näkemystä perustuu näkemykselle siitä, että reduktiivinen käsitys ihmisestä johtaa vakaviin eettisiin ongelmiin. Väitteeni on, että Davidsonin ja von Wrightin mielenfilosofian taustalla vaikuttaa huoli siitä, että reduktiivinen lähestymistapa on kapea-alainen ja mahdollisesti vahingollinen näkemys. Tutkimukseni viimeinen johtopäätös onkin, että von Wrightin ja Davidsonin näkemyksistä käsin voidaan tarkastella kriittisesti skientististä mielenfilosofiaa ja arvioida mielenfilosofian tulevia eettisiä haasteita

Vectors and transmission dynamics for Setaria tundra (Filarioidea;

Background: Recent studies have revealed expansion by an array of Filarioid nematodes' into the northern boreal region of Finland. The vector-borne nematode, Setaria tundra, caused a serious disease outbreak in the Finnish reindeer population in 2003–05. The main aim of this study was to understand the outbreak dynamics and the rapid expansion of S. tundra in the sub arctic. We describe the vectors of S. tundra, and its development in vectors, for the first time. Finally we discuss the results in the context of the host-parasite ecology of S. tundra in Finland Results: Development of S. tundra to the infective stage occurs in mosquitoes, (genera Aedes and Anopheles). We consider Aedes spp. the most important vectors. The prevalence of S. tundra naturally infected mosquitoes from Finland varied from 0.5 to 2.5%. The rate of development in mosquitoes was temperature-dependent. Infective larvae were present approximately 14 days after a blood meal in mosquitoes maintained at room temperature (mean 21 C), but did not develop in mosquitoes maintained outside for 22 days at a mean temperature of 14.1 C. The third-stage (infective) larvae were elongated (mean length 1411 m (SD 207), and width 28 m (SD 2)). The anterior end was blunt, and bore two liplike structures, the posterior end slight tapering with a prominent terminal papilla. Infective larvae were distributed anteriorly in the insect's body, the highest abundance being 70 larvae in one mosquito. A questionnaire survey revealed that the peak activity of Culicidae in the reindeer herding areas of Finland was from the middle of June to the end of July and that warm summer weather was associated with reindeer flocking behaviour on mosquito-rich wetlands. Conclusion: In the present work, S. tundra vectors and larval development were identified and described for the first time. Aedes spp. mosquitoes likely serve as the most important and competent vectors for S. tundra in Finland. Warm summers apparently promote transmission and genesis of disease outbreaks by favouring the development of S. tundra in its mosquito vectors, by improving the development and longevity of mosquitoes, and finally by forcing the reindeer to flock on mosquito rich wetlands. Thus we predict that global climate change has the potential to promote the further emergence of Filarioid nematodes and the disease caused by them in subarctic regions

Vectors and transmission dynamics for Setaria tundra (Filarioidea; Onchocercidae), a parasite of reindeer in Finland

Background: Recent studies have revealed expansion by an array of Filarioid nematodes' into the northern boreal region of Finland. The vector-borne nematode, Setaria tundra, caused a serious disease outbreak in the Finnish reindeer population in 2003–05. The main aim of this study was to understand the outbreak dynamics and the rapid expansion of S. tundra in the sub arctic. We describe the vectors of S. tundra, and its development in vectors, for the first time. Finally we discuss the results in the context of the host-parasite ecology of S. tundra in Finland Results: Development of S. tundra to the infective stage occurs in mosquitoes, (genera Aedes and Anopheles). We consider Aedes spp. the most important vectors. The prevalence of S. tundra naturally infected mosquitoes from Finland varied from 0.5 to 2.5%. The rate of development in mosquitoes was temperature-dependent. Infective larvae were present approximately 14 days after a blood meal in mosquitoes maintained at room temperature (mean 21 C), but did not develop in mosquitoes maintained outside for 22 days at a mean temperature of 14.1 C. The third-stage (infective) larvae were elongated (mean length 1411 m (SD 207), and width 28 m (SD 2)). The anterior end was blunt, and bore two liplike structures, the posterior end slight tapering with a prominent terminal papilla. Infective larvae were distributed anteriorly in the insect's body, the highest abundance being 70 larvae in one mosquito. A questionnaire survey revealed that the peak activity of Culicidae in the reindeer herding areas of Finland was from the middle of June to the end of July and that warm summer weather was associated with reindeer flocking behaviour on mosquito-rich wetlands. Conclusion: In the present work, S. tundra vectors and larval development were identified and described for the first time. Aedes spp. mosquitoes likely serve as the most important and competent vectors for S. tundra in Finland. Warm summers apparently promote transmission and genesis of disease outbreaks by favouring the development of S. tundra in its mosquito vectors, by improving the development and longevity of mosquitoes, and finally by forcing the reindeer to flock on mosquito rich wetlands. Thus we predict that global climate change has the potential to promote the further emergence of Filarioid nematodes and the disease caused by them in subarctic regions

Comparison of reconstruction and acquisition choices for quantitative T2* maps and synthetic contrasts

Aim and scope: A Gradient Echo Plural Contrast Imaging technique (GEPCI) is a post-processing method, which can be used to obtain quantitative T2* values and generate multiple synthetic contrasts from a single acquisition. However, scan duration and image reconstruction from k-space data present challenges in a clinical workflow. This study aimed at optimizing image reconstruction and acquisition duration to facilitate a post-processing method for synthetic image contrast creation in clinical settings. Materials and methods: This study consists of tests using the American College of Radiology (ACR) image quality phantom, two healthy volunteers, four mild traumatic brain injury patients and four small vessel disease patients. The measurements were carried out on a 3.0 T scanner with multiple echo times. Reconstruction from k-space data and DICOM data with two different coil-channel combination modes were investigated. Partial Fourier techniques were tested to optimize the scanning time. Conclusions: Sum of squares coil-channel combination produced artifacts in phase images, but images created with adaptive combination were artifact-free. The voxel-wise median signed difference of T2* between the vendor's adaptive channel combination and k-space reconstruction modes was 2.9 +/- 0.7 ms for white matter and 4.5 +/- 0.6 ms for gray matter. Relative white matter/gray matter contrast of all synthetic images and contrast-to-noise ratio of synthetic T1-weighted images were almost equal between reconstruction modes. Our results indicate that synthetic contrasts can be generated from the vendor's DICOM data with the adaptive combination mode without affecting the quantitative T2* values or white matter/gray matter contrast.Peer reviewe

Post-fault Activation of Flexible Resources to Manage Regional Congestions Caused by a Contingency during a Planned Outage

This paper focuses on regional and local outage planning of an electricity transmission system and presents a novel outage planning approach to solve grid congestions caused by a contingency during a planned outage in significantly surplus regions. The novel approach utilizes temporary admissible transmission loading as an enabler of a post-fault activation of flexible resources and minimizes the need to restrict the active power input into the transmission grid during a planned outage while still complying with the operational security limits. The paper presents suitable redispatching methods to implement the proposed approach, discusses its advantages and risks from three perspectives and compares it with the conventional approach. The proposed approach is expected to be more beneficial for the connected parties and the society, however, it may increase the risks and costs of a TSO compared with the conventional approach.Peer reviewe

Synteettiset kontrastit magneettikuvauksessa

Teema : Magneettikuvaus. English summaryPeer reviewe

Considerations for Economic Regulation Amendments to Incentivize Flexibility Utilization in the Finnish Transmission System

This paper provides considerations for economic regulation amendments to incentivize flexibility utilization in the Finnish transmission system. An investment deferral shall produce higher economic efficiency if the incurred costs of flexibility utilization are lower than the costs of a comparable investment during the evaluation period while the increase of service output remains the same. The analysis in this paper evaluates costs and benefits for a transmission system operator, connecting party and society in the regulatory regime applied in Finland. Incentives for flexibility utilization are missing from the current revenue capped rate of return regulation. The analysis results show that beneficiaries of flexibility utilization in the current regulation are the society and connecting party while TSO's efforts to defer an investment would have negative economic impact on its profit. Therefore, amendments to the economic regulation methodology are proposed to incentivize flexibility utilization when total welfare is increased.Peer reviewe

Bacterial biofilm in salivary stones

PurposeTo assess the susceptibility of salivary stones to bacterial biofilm formation, which may be involved in the development of salivary gland infection, and to investigate a relation between microbiological aspects and patient characteristics.MethodsThis prospective study comprises of 54 patients with sialolithiasis attended in Helsinki University Hospital during 2014-2016. A total of 55 salivary stones were removed, and studied for biofilm formation using fluorescence microscopy and sonication. The isolated organisms were quantified and identified using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry.ResultsBiofilm formation was confirmed on the surface of 39 (70.9%) stones. A total of 96 microorganisms were isolated from 45 salivary stones (81.8%). Two or more organisms were isolated in 33 (73.3%) cases. The main isolates were Streptococcus mitis/oralis (n=27; 28.1%), followed by Streptococcusanginosus (n=10; 9.6%), Rothia spp. (n=8; 8.3%), Streptococcusconstellatus (n=7; 7.3%), and Streptococcusgordonii (n=6; 6.2%). In all patients showing pre-operative (12 cases) or peri-operative (three cases) drainage of pus, the presence of biofilm was detected in microscopy (p=0.004). Four patients showed post-operative infection, and in three of them (75.0%), the presence of biofilm was detected. Increased number of pus drainage was found among patients with reflux symptoms or use of proton-pump inhibitors.ConclusionsSalivary stones are susceptible to bacterial biofilm formation, which could be related with the development and severity of the inflammation and the refractory nature of the disease. Sonication of salivary gland stones could be a useful method for finding the etiology of the chronic infection.Peer reviewe

Chlamydia trachomatis samples testing falsely negative in the Aptima Combo 2 test in Finland, 2019

Since February 2019, over 160 Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) cases testing negative or equivocal by Aptima Combo 2 (AC2) but positive by Aptima CT test run with Panther instruments occurred in Finland. The AC2 test targets chlamydial 23S rRNA while the CT test targets 16S rRNA. Sequencing of 10 strains revealed a nucleotide substitution in 23S rRNA. The significance of this for the failure of the AC2 test to detect the variant is not yet known.Peer reviewe

Automated Detection of Atrial Fibrillation Based on Time-Frequency Analysis of Seismocardiograms

In this paper, a novel method to detect atrial fibrillation from a seismocardiogram (SCG) is presented. The proposed method is based on linear classification of the spectral entropy and a heart rate variability index computed from the SCG. The performance of the developed algorithm is demonstrated on data gathered from 13 patients in clinical setting. After motion artefact removal, in total 119 minutes of AFib data and 126 minutes of sinus rhythm data were considered for automated atrial fibrillation detection. No other arrhythmias were considered in this study. The proposed algorithm requires no direct heartbeat peak detection from the SCG data, which makes it tolerant against interpersonal variations in the SCG morphology, and noise. Furthermore, the proposed method relies solely on SCG and needs no complementary electrocardiography (ECG) to be functional. For the considered data, the detection method performs well even on relatively low quality SCG signals. Using a majority voting scheme which takes 5 randomly selected segments from a signal and classifies these segments using the proposed algorithm, we obtained an average true positive rate of 99.9% and an average true negative rate of 96.4% for detecting atrial fibrillation in leave-one-out cross-validation. The presented work facilitates adoption of MEMS-based heart monitoring devices for arrhythmia detection.</p