Return migration

This chapter provides an overview of key concepts and developments in the field of return migration over the past two decades. First, the question of what is return will be examined. Definitions of return migration differ across different contexts depending on the duration of the migration, duration of the return, nationality of the migrant, and intention of the return to be permanent or temporary. A second core issue is the voluntary or forced nature of the return itself, thus determining if the individual was deported, coerced, or returning on their own volition. Third, the chapter will address post-return experiences during the reintegration processes. This can be challenging, and this section will examine how different returnees experience and receive support in their reintegration. Finally, return migration may be a continual stage in the migration journey, in particular for transnational migrants or individuals who aspire to remigrate, or it may be ‘the end of the migration cycle’. The chapter concludes by examining the role of return in different migration trajectories. Throughout the chapter, the heterogeneity of return migration will be stressed by drawing on different types of return migrants such as students, labour migrants, and refugee repatriations.</p

The Multi-level Governance of Asylum in Italy: Understanding Eritreans' Secondary Movements in Search of Relocation within Italy

The migration policy, securitization and governance of the asylum landscape has greatly changed in Italy over the past five years. The implementation of the hotspot approach and the European Union relocation programme has characterized two of these significant changes. This article examines how recent (2016–17) Eritrean arrivals in Italy experienced and responded to the asylum system. The analysis reflects, first, on the multi-level governance of the interplay between the institutional level of the European Union, national policy and local municipal policies within Italy. Second, this article shows how Eritrean asylum seekers have been refused access to the relocation programme by local authorities in Italy and how Eritreans react to this bureaucracy by engaging in secondary movements within Italy. The results provide an analytical critique regarding the governance shortcomings of the relocation programme in Italy that is important for consideration in future solidarity and responsibility-sharing initiatives within the European Union

Migrant experiences of sexual and gender based violence: a critical interpretative synthesis

Background Gender based violence (GBV) is a critical issue and migrants are at higher risk of experiencing and being victimized by GBV. This critical interpretative synthesis (CIS) examines migrants experiences of GBV with a focus on different migrant groups and experiences at different stages of the migrant journey. Method The guiding question of this review is: "how do migrants experience gender-based violence?" A total of 84 studies were included in the CIS, of which 67 peer-reviewed academic articles were selected from 2356 studies found on WebofScience, MedLINE, and ProQuest, and 17 relevant studies from the grey literature were selected from the time period 2011 to 2020. All final studies were reviewed and synthesized using a critical inductive approach to formulate the key results. Results The results demonstrate a high prevalence of GBV amongst migrants, and in particular among vulnerable migrant groups such as forced migrants and irregular migrants, with an emerging focus on male victims. Findings of the CIS revealed three key themes: 1) Most GBV occurrences are rooted in unequal power dynamics; 2) Victims often live with long-lasting consequences that are worsened by their fear of disclosure and stigmatization; 3) There are differential understandings of victimhood across organizations, communities, and victims themselves. In order to support access, sampling, and methodological challenges in this field of research, this article also reports its findings on common risk-factors identified, consequences and coping mechanisms reported, protection policies targeting GBV, and finally, available databases and data collection methods. Conclusion Further directions for research should be encouraged to move beyond prevalence reporting into identifying risk-factors and possible prevention in both sexes. In addition, more research on GBV experiences throughout migrants' journeys, and coping mechanisms should be encouraged

Beyond 'Just Comes' and 'Know-It-Alls': Exploring Strategies to Deal with Returnee Stigmas During Diaspora Return Visits for Knowledge Transfer

Drawing on in-depth interviews with 35 diaspora members on return visits for knowledge transfer as well as conversations with stakeholders in Ethiopia, Sierra Leone and Somaliland, this paper examines returnee stigma in the case of shortterm return visits. The diaspora members in this study choose of their own volition to participate in the programme and are mostly highly educated with valued expertise in a certain field. We find that despite their skills, education and voluntariness, the returnees still experience and prepare for stigmatization in their return visits. We examine, first, the general stigmatizations that stakeholders perceive that diaspora members and returnees experience; second, diaspora members' actual experiences of stigmatization, and third, the strategies used by diaspora members to prevent and counteract the stigmatization. The findings show that stigma towards the highly skilled diaspora members in return visits is rooted in the perceived inequalities among the home employees and communities of origin in comparison to these diaspora members, which are underpinned by global inequalities in terms of citizenship and access to international mobility. These findings contribute to the academic literature on return and returnee stigma by discussing return visits for knowledge transfer as a distinct type of return mobility, exploring returnee stigma in a context other than post-deportation and showing that diaspora returnees use preventive and counteractive strategies. Diaspora return programmes should include preparation and coaching of returnees on stigma to enhance their (re)integration and optimise their contribution to the development of the countries of origin