On Refunding of Emission Taxes and Technology Diffusion

We analyze diffusion of an abatement technology in an imperfectly competitive industry under a standard emission tax compared to an emission tax which is refunded in proportion to output market share. The results indicate that refunding can speed up diffusion if firms do not strategically influence the size of the refund. If they do, it is ambiguous whether diffusion is slower or faster than under a non-refunded emission tax. Moreover, it is ambiguous whether refunding continues over time to provide larger incentives for technological upgrading than a non-refunded emission tax, since the effects of refunding dissipate as the overall industry becomes cleaner

Emulsification of Alkyl Ketene Dimer (AKD) -characterization of dispersions and emulsifiers

Alkyl Ketene Dimer (AKD) is a commonly used hydrophobizing agent in the paper industry, introducing capillary absorption barriers for polar liquids, which makes the paper more resistant to liquid penetration. Since AKD is a so-called internal sizing agent it is usually added in the form of a water-borne dispersion. The objective of this thesis was to investigate the emulsification of the AKD and to characterize and facilitate the formulation of an emulsion with good stability using both normal and degradable surfactants. The AKD was characterized by means of viscosity as a function of temperature, oil number (NOIL) and HLB number. Since the normal way of dispersing AKD goes via high shear emulsification, a low energy emulsification system was developed in order to simplify the emulsification process. It was found that the addition of a fatty alcohol to the formulation was crucial for the emulsification result, giving smaller droplet size and improved emulsion stability. The presence of a lamellar liquid crystalline phase seemed to be of major importance for the long-term stability. Also the order of addition of the components was of importance; adding water to the oil-surfactant mixture resulted in emulsions with a smaller droplet size than mixing the other way around. The surfactants used for emulsification of AKD are only needed in the emulsification process. At a later stage they may cause problems like foaming and uncontrolled wetting of the paper surface. It was demonstrated that cleavable surfactants could successfully be used as emulsifiers for AKD. Both so-called ester-quats and normal ester surfactants were used, showing a potential use of these surfactants that are susceptible to alkaline hydrolysis. A model system based on the polar oil squalane was also emulsified using surface active ortho esters. This relatively new class of acid-labile surfactants showed promising results both in absence and in presence of a stabilizing polymer. Depending on the constituents of the trifunctional ortho ester surfactants, the degradation was shown to proceed at different rates

Emulsification of Alkyl Ketene Dimer (AKD) -characterization of dispersions and emulsifiers

Alkyl Ketene Dimer (AKD) is a commonly used hydrophobizing agent in the paper industry, introducing capillary absorption barriers for polar liquids, which makes the paper more resistant to liquid penetration. Since AKD is a so-called internal sizing agent it is usually added in the form of a water-borne dispersion. The objective of this thesis was to investigate the emulsification of the AKD and to characterize and facilitate the formulation of an emulsion with good stability using both normal and degradable surfactants. The AKD was characterized by means of viscosity as a function of temperature, oil number (NOIL) and HLB number. Since the normal way of dispersing AKD goes via high shear emulsification, a low energy emulsification system was developed in order to simplify the emulsification process. It was found that the addition of a fatty alcohol to the formulation was crucial for the emulsification result, giving smaller droplet size and improved emulsion stability. The presence of a lamellar liquid crystalline phase seemed to be of major importance for the long-term stability. Also the order of addition of the components was of importance; adding water to the oil-surfactant mixture resulted in emulsions with a smaller droplet size than mixing the other way around. The surfactants used for emulsification of AKD are only needed in the emulsification process. At a later stage they may cause problems like foaming and uncontrolled wetting of the paper surface. It was demonstrated that cleavable surfactants could successfully be used as emulsifiers for AKD. Both so-called ester-quats and normal ester surfactants were used, showing a potential use of these surfactants that are susceptible to alkaline hydrolysis. A model system based on the polar oil squalane was also emulsified using surface active ortho esters. This relatively new class of acid-labile surfactants showed promising results both in absence and in presence of a stabilizing polymer. Depending on the constituents of the trifunctional ortho ester surfactants, the degradation was shown to proceed at different rates

Diffusion of NOx abatement technologies in Sweden

This paper studies how different NOx abatement technologies have diffused under the Swedish system of refunded emissions charges and analyzes the determinants of the time to adoption. The policy, under which the charge revenues are refunded back to the regulated firms in proportion to energy output, was explicitly designed to affect investment in NOx-reducing technologies. The results indicate that a higher net NOx charge liability, i.e. a reduction in tax liabilities net of the refund due to the new technology, increases the likelihood of adoption, but only for end-of-pipe post-combustion technologies. We also find some indication that market power considerations in the heat and power industry reduce the incentives to abate emissions through investment in postcombustion technologies. Adoption of post-combustion technologies and the efficiency improving technology of flue gas condensation are also more likely in the heat and power and waste incineration sectors, which is possibly explained by a large degree of public ownership in these sectors.JEL Classification: H23, O33, O38, Q5