Penelitian Penggunaan Minarex Pertamina Sebagai Minyak Pelunak Kompon Karet Untuk Sol Sepatu Kanvas

The objective of the research is to use minarex, by product of Pertamina, as a softener in making rubber sole compound for canvas shoes. The formula of the compound applied four kinds of minarex, manely minarex A, B, C and D with variation 2 – 8 phr. The mastication and mixing processes used two roll mill machine and the compound was vulcanized at 150 oC, at the pressure 150 kg/cm2and 10 mnutes curing time. The comformityt of softener, minaret, is excellent and no oil exist to the surface of the vulcanized compound. The property of the vulcanized compound fulfilled all the quality requirements of SNI 0778-89- A and SNI 1844-90-A for canvas shoe rubber sole, except abrasion for sport shoe (max. 1.00 mm3/ kgm compared with the result of the test, 1.52 – 2.35 mm3/kgm). Data analysed proves the to kinds of minarex to influence all properties in rubber compounds. While treatment of minarex to inflience the properties of elongation at break, permanent set and hardness. The type of minarex to influince properties of the tear strength, abrasion and density to rubber compound. INTISARI Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menggunakan minarex Pertamina sebagai bahan pelunak dalam pembuatan kompon karet untuk sol sepatu kanvas. Formula kompon menggunakan empat jenis minarex yaitu minarex A, B, C dan D dengan variasi antara 2 – 8 phr. Pencampuran menggunakan giling karet terbuka dan kompon divulkanisasi pada suhu 1500C, tekanan 150 kg/cm2 dan waktu 10 menit. Tingkat kecocokan bahan pelunak minarex sangat baik, tidak terjadi pengeluaran minyak ke permukaan kompon dan vulkanisat kompon. Sifat vulkanisat memenuhi semua persyaratan mutu dalam SNI 0778-89-A dan SNI 1844-99-A untuk sol karet sepatu kanvas, kecuali syarat mutu ketahanan kikis sol sepatu untuk olah raga maks. 1,00 mm3 / kgm dibandingkan dengan hasil uji kikis vulkanisat yaitu antara 1,52 – 2,35 mm3 /kgm. Hasil analisa data uji menunjukkan jenis minrex mempengaruhi semua sifat fisis kompon yang di ujikan. Sedangkan sifat perlakuan minarex mempengaruhi perpanjangan putus, perpanjangan tetap dan kekerasan. Type minarex mempengaruhi ketahanan jenis dan ketahanan sobek kompon karet

Value chain analysis and sanitary risks of the camel milk system supplying Nairobi city, Kenya

The camel milk trade in Kenya has evolved significantly from a small-scale business undertaken in local villages to its current status involving a large number of different stakeholders supplying urban towns, particularly Nairobi City. Despite the evident growth pattern, the supply of camel milk to Nairobi has largely remained informal, with minimal enforcement of regulations. The aim of this study was to characterise the camel milk system supplying Nairobi and assess its governance, main challenges and the potential food safety risk practices. A value chain analysis framework was used to carry out data collection between August 2014 and July 2015. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews with stakeholders operating in different nodes of the value chains. Three milk value chains supplying Nairobi were identified and mapped: the Isiolo chain, the Kajiado chain and the camel milk processing company chain. Overall, the results indicate that 94% of the milk supplied to Nairobi city is informally traded (traded without any effective regulation), while 6% originates from a formal milk processing company. In the informal chains, milk traders (mostly women) were reported to play a pivotal role in the organisation and daily functioning of the chains. The processing company had partly integrated activities and reported exporting 5% of their products to regional and international markets. Food safety themes identified were associated with i) lack of cold chain, ii) gaps in hygiene practices, particularly at farm and market levels, iii) consumption of raw camel milk, and iv) lack of food safety training, among other issues. Low level involvement by government agencies in enforcing stipulated food safety measures were reported in the informal chains, as these concentrate efforts in the regulation of dairy milk chains. Isiolo milk traders were identified as the dominant group, setting milk prices and providing sanctions. The framework and findings obtained can help future research and policy makers to reach informed decision about what to regulate, where to target and importantly how to make the camel milk value chain more efficient and safer

Using a value chain framework for food safety assessment of broiler and indigenous chicken meat systems of Nairobi

Purpose: Research on livestock food systems in developing countries remains limited, yet this context needs to be understood to investigate the epidemiology of zoonoses. The aim of this study was to use a value chain framework to characterize the broiler and indigenous chicken meat systems of Nairobi and their food safety risks. Methods: Using such a framework for food safety characterisation at system level is novel and has significant potential in developing countries. Data collection involved 18 focus group discussions and 236 interviews with various poultry meat value chain stakeholders in Nairobi. Analysis included chain mapping and identification of governance and food safety challenges. Results: The study identified 10 chain profiles, characterising the broiler and indigenous chicken systems, and production-retailing continuum. Food safety risks identified were related to lack of biosecurity, cold chain and access to water, poor cleaning and hygiene practices, consumption of sick animals, significant environmental contamination of by-products, and lack of inspection at farm slaughter. Large companies dominated the governance of the broiler system through the control of day-old chick production. Overall government control was relatively weak leading to minimal official regulatory enforcement. Large companies and brokers were identified as dominant groups in market information dissemination and price setting. No dominant group was identified for indigenous chicken profiles, farming being at household level for local consumption, with quasi non-existent regulations. Lack of industry association was system-wide, creating a barrier for access to capital. Other system barriers included lack of space and expertise, leading to poor infrastructure and limited ability to implement effective hygienic measures. Conclusions and relevance: Optimal food safety and disease control strategies should consider the structure of the poultry meat system and stakeholder interactions to ensure effective programmes. This study provides a new perspective for epidemiologists and public health officers to address food safety risks in full understanding of the food system context

Value chain analysis as a tool for assessing food safety risks in the Nairobi pork food system

In Nairobi, with 3.1 million consumers and 30,000 pigs, the pork system may represents a major source of zoonotic pathogens. Yet, this system and its public health risks have not been described. The study used value chain analysis, a well-known method in economics, to investigate zoonosis and food safety risks practices in the Nairobi pork food system. A cross-sectional study of the Nairobi pork system collected data through 25 focus group discussions and 436 individual interviews with farmers, traders, abattoir owners, large companies’ managers, retailers, government officers and consumers. Data were analysed to identify, describe and quantify the main pork chain profiles, their associated zoonosis and food safety risks practices and their link to governance, the distribution of benefits and barriers to improving the system. Six pork chain profiles were identified with the ‘large integrated company’ profile accounting for 62% of pork marketed through abattoirs. Pigs in slums were channelled directly to consumers and butchers or through less integrated markets. Main zoonosis and food safety risk practices for city pig keepers were: handling and consumption of sick pigs; and swill and scavenging feeding. In less integrated abattoirs these risks were: lack of traceability, cold chain systems and adequate cleaning and sterilising practices and equipment. For the retailers, there was a lack of hygiene linked to poor infrastructure, scarcity of water and cleaning practices. Large companies govern the high end market for pork where barriers to improvements were less. In the lower end poor profit margins and unequal benefit distribution led to issues on around investments in infrastructure, cold chains and human capacity building plus difficulties with meeting feeding and animal health costs. Conclusions This study identified the main zoonoses and food safety risk practices and the people involved in risk taking activities to help future control programmes in the Nairobi pork system. The integration of value chain and analysis of risks practices proved useful and represent the way forward for epidemiologist working in developing countries

Beef, sheep and goat food chains supplying Nairobi: Analysis of 'value chain profiles' to investigate food security and safety risks

Introduction: Beef, sheep and goat meat consumption provides essential nutrients in highly bioavailable form, and poses a zoonotic pathogen threat. In Nairobi, these luxury products are difficult to access by poor households, yet little is known on the city’s food system in terms of food safety and security risks. An understanding of the food systems is essential to assess and contextualize the chains supplying poor households and to determine population exposure to hazards. Mapping is therefore crucial to assess food security and food safety risks. The present study characterised the Nairobi beef, sheep and goat food systems using value chain analysis. Methods: Data collection targeted the different stakeholders involved in beef, sheep and goat meat food systems from: (1) urban and periurban farmers; (2) livestock and meat traders, abattoir/market owners and workers, and livestock and meat transporters in all Nairobi markets; (3) managers of the main beef, sheep and goat meat processing companies; (4) urban and periurban retailers; (5) 205 low income consumers and (6) government/regulatory officers. Data were collected through focus groups discussion and individual interviews, and complemented with secondary data. Qualitative data were obtained on people, animals, products and chains interactions to identify all the existing stakeholders and chains, and assess their organizational, spatial and temporal structure. Quantitative data were collected to assess flow of products in the different chains and their contribution to the supply of these commodities to Nairobi. Data were recorded and entered in thematic templates for analysis. Mapping analysis was done through the creation of 'Chain profiles', which groups patterns of operations/flows of commodities. Mapping of these profiles was done at 3 levels: (1) people chain profile (map interactions of actors); (2) Geographical chain profiling (map of routes of animals and products); and (3) Product profiling. Findings and interpretations: Eight chain profiles that make up the beef, sheep and goat meat food systems were identified. A critical profile was the ‘less integrated terminal markets’, composed of chains where no group or person own a large proportion of different activities. This profile represents three quarters of the city’s beef, sheep and goat meat supply and contains two significant markets (Figure 1). Large companies integrate market, product transport and distribution, and mainly export or supply to high class retailers and consumers. Six beef keeping activities were identified in the city, mainly as temporary settlements. Sheep and goat keeping was mainly small scale (1-5 animals) and their animals are mostly slaughtered in households for festive occasions. In low income households beef was obtained from butcheries (83%), while goats were obtained from butcheries (51%) and markets (40%). This study shows the importance of specific chains to the food security of a city, and describes the dimensions of urban human-livestock interactions. In combination with an understanding of chains governance and barriers, this study provides a powerful approach, missing to date, for the investigation of nutrition and food safety risks

A Midterm Evaluation of the Conservation & Sustainable Development Program

This report contains the findings and recommendations of the CSD Mid-Term Evaluation, following the successful completion of the Evaluation in late 2015.Our approach and methodology followed the plan we submitted to the Foundation dated May 8, 2015. All of our evaluation objectives and plans have been met.We conducted field work and carried out extensive interviews in CSD's priority regions of the Andes and the Great Lakes of East and Central Africa, and expanded the work conducted earlier in 2015 by a separate evaluation of the Greater Mekong region. We conducted desk reviews and interviews for CSD's Coastal and Marine, and Global portfolios. Our work also included discussions with Foundation Board members Jack Fuller and Paul Klingenstein, and with President Julia Stasch

Planning for changes in complex food systems: Value chain mapping of different poultry production systems in Nairobi as a first step to food safety, livelihood improvement and micronutrient supply assessments

Introduction: Research on livestock food systems in developing countries remains limited yet these systems are undergoing rapid and ongoing changes. Poultry meat in Nairobi is a good case study to investigate the changes that result from increasing demand for animal protein1, in particular how different systems affect the supply of macro and micronutrients, livelihood improvement and food safety risks. The aim of the current study was to map the broiler and indigenous chicken meat value chains of Nairobi to provide a thorough context (milieu) for future food safety and socio-economic assessments of the wide poultry meat system. Methods: Focus groups and individual questionnaires were used to collect data from: - Broiler and indigenous farmers (in Dagoretti, reflecting peri-urban chains, and Kibera informal settlement, for urban chains); - Retailers in Viwandani, Korogocho (informal settlements), and Dagoretti; - Three larger broiler production companies; - Livestock production and public health officers, meat inspectors, city council, National Environment Management Authority, and a village chief. The following data were collected for each chain and entered in templates: - Categories of farms, retailers, products and consumers; production practices and performance; relative flows of birds and products, their sources and seasonality; market outlets; regulations enforcement and institutional context; interactions and involvement of people in the chains’ nodes; biosecurity measures. Analysis allowed detailed characterisation and graphical representation of the food system. Within the system the following “chain profiles” were identified: 1) peri-urban and 2) urban broilers; 3) peri-urban and 4) urban indigenous chickens; 5) large and 6) medium integrated companies; 7) live and 8) meat poultry markets; 9) main poultry chains in each sub-county; 10) characterisation of poultry retailer types. Each profile has a distinct set of flows, interactions, market potentials, risk practices, production and distribution characteristics, useful for food safety, food security and governance assessments. Findings and interpretation: Within the poultry meat food system the chains in urban areas had fewer intermediaries and smaller geographic span than those in peri-urban areas – overall they were “shorter”. The limited space in urban areas appeared to reduce flock size and hence increase one-off transactions. Use of brokers in peri-urban chains made transport of meat, rather than birds, more practical. Greatest homogeneity was seen in the chains with commercial broiler chickens (birds for meat production) with one large company supplying 60% of Nairobi’s day-old chicks to small-scale farmers. A small number of larger companies supply broiler chicken meat to high-end retailers across Nairobi, yet there are many more small-scale broiler farmers who sell birds close to their farms, or in Nairobi markets. Indigenous breed chickens are kept in backyard farming systems and are kept for home or local consumption. Birds are also sourced from remote areas of Kenya. Different meat products reach different consumers, based on their value. The lowest value products are heads and legs from broilers of large-scale and peri-urban small farms, which are sold in informal settlements via roadside vendors. The description of the chicken meat food system provides the context for further food safety and food security analysis

Value chain analysis for products and by-products of egg laying birds in peri-urban areas of Nairobi City

Livestock keeping in urban areas is a source of livelihoods for poor urban families, but it also poses public health challenges. Purpose This included mapping of value chains for products from commercial layers (CL) and indigenous layers (IL) kept in peri-urban areas of Nairobi City, prioritization of barriers to entry into layer farming and assessment of disease and food safety management. Methods Data on interaction between people and poultry products, barriers to entry and disease and food safety management were collected through key informant interviews, focus group discussions (FGD) and administration of questionnaires. Twelve FGD were conducted and 250 questionnaires administered to individual farmers. Additional data was obtained from retailers of poultry products and government officers. Results The CL farms kept between 100 and 1,000 birds per flock while for IL farms, flock sizes were between 1 and 50 birds. CL farms obtained day old chicks from distributors of large and small-scale hatcheries and from hawkers, while IL farms obtained chicks from small-scale hatcheries and neighbouring farms. Products from these farms were eggs, spent hens and poultry manure. Eggs from CL farms were sold to shops, consumers and hawkers, while those from IL farms were sold to neighbours, bakeries and restaurants, while some were consumed at home. Spent layers were sold to brokers, neighbours and households. Poultry manure was used on crop farms and as feed for dairy cattle. The barriers to entry included poor quality feeds, poultry diseases, seasonality and scarcity of water and land. The diseases included coccidiosis, Newcastle disease and respiratory problems and these were managed by personnel from “agrovets”, while in slums sick birds were slaughtered and consumed. Furthermore, hawkers and personnel from restaurants and shops were reported to lack training in food safety. Conclusion and relevance Risk for zoonoses exists along poultry value chains and hence with increasing urbanization in developing countries, investigation of food systems in cities should adopt this framework to better understand public health risks

Understanding the food safety and zoonosis risk practices of the beef, sheep and goat Nairobi food systems using value chain analysis

Purpose Beef, sheep and goat food systems are thought to be important sources of pathogens in Nairobi. This study aimed to use value chain (VC) analysis to investigate food safety and zoonotic risk practices of these systems. Methods VC analysis is commonly used to assess market structures yet its potential to investigate food safety and zoonotic risks is unexplored. In a cross-sectional study of people in Nairobi’s beef, sheep and goat food systems (farmers to consumers), data were collected through 75 focus groups and 571 interviews. Data were obtained on movement of people, animals and products (chain mapping), power groups, rules, incentives and enforcement (governance), barriers, distribution of benefits and food safety and zoonoses risk practices. Data were analysed to produce chain profiles and quantify commodity flows and gross margins. Qualitative analysis identified food safety, zoonosis and VC themes. Results Eight chain profiles were identified, with the ‘less integrated terminal markets’ representing three quarters of the city’s ruminant meat supply. Main food safety and zoonotic risk practices related to: water and equipment contamination; poor cold chain; human contact contamination; animal movements; and lack of hygiene. Poor governance enhanced these risks such as: inadequate market business models; enforcement failures; control gaps; and power group pressures. Barriers identified to corrective actions were: lack of infrastructure; limited financial capacity; poor training and services. Furthermore, unequal distribution of benefits in low cost markets provided a negative incentive for the perpetuation of risks. Conclusions This study identified main food safety and zoonoses risk practices, people and VC factors involved in risk-taking activities to help future control programmes in the Nairobi beef, sheep and goat system. Relevance Food safety risks and diseases can be effectively controlled and understood when these are investigated using a food system approach which considers chain governance, barriers and inequalities. The methods used provide a clear guideline and way forward for epidemiologists to investigate these risks using a VC approach

Linking diet switching to reproductive performance across populations of two critically endangered mammalian herbivores.

Optimal foraging theory predicts that animals maximise energy intake by consuming the most valuable foods available. When resources are limited, they may include lower-quality fallback foods in their diets. As seasonal herbivore diet switching is understudied, we evaluate its extent and effects across three Kenyan reserves each for Critically Endangered eastern black rhino (Diceros bicornis michaeli) and Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi), and its associations with habitat quality, microbiome variation, and reproductive performance. Black rhino diet breadth increases with vegetation productivity (NDVI), whereas zebra diet breadth peaks at intermediate NDVI. Black rhino diets associated with higher vegetation productivity have less acacia (Fabaceae: Vachellia and Senegalia spp.) and more grass suggesting that acacia are fallback foods, upending conventional assumptions. Larger dietary shifts are associated with longer calving intervals. Grevy's zebra diets in high rainfall areas are consistently grass-dominated, whereas in arid areas they primarily consume legumes during low vegetation productivity periods. Whilst microbiome composition between individuals is affected by the environment, and diet composition in black rhino, seasonal dietary shifts do not drive commensurate microbiome shifts. Documenting diet shifts across ecological gradients can increase the effectiveness of conservation by informing habitat suitability models and improving understanding of responses to resource limitatio