Uwagi o strukturze przestrzennej Wrocławia w XI–XIII wieku

In general, medieval Wrocław reflects development trends characteristic of large cities of Central Europe’s inland zone. Previous research conducted by historians, art historians, architecture historians as well as by archaeologists contributed greatly to the reconstructing the development of its structure. The city lies on the Odra River that flows in a few riverbeds separated by islands. Natural factors had a significant impact on both the formation of urban space as well as the conditions of everyday life. During the proto-urban phase, Wrocław had a polycentric structure; individual parts of the settlement complex were located on islands and on both sides of the river. These were the earthen and wooden stronghold with the seat and the cathedral, the settlement of craftsmen and merchants, two abbeys, the magnates’ manors and agrarian settlements. The intensive development of this complex and especially that of the craftsmen’s settlement on the left bank of the Odra River took place in the 2nd half of the 12th and the first half of the 13th century. In the late stage of its development, proto-urban Wrocław had a diverse ethnic structure. Apart from Polish inhabitants, Germans, Walloons and Jews lived there. In the early decades of the 13th century, there was a significant increase in the surface area occupied by the craftsmen’s settlement on the left bank of the Odra River, probably mainly due to the inflow of newcomers. The newly built St Mary Magdalene’s church was the parish centre. The legal status of the settlement and its inhabitants remains unclear due to the lack of written sources. We know, however, that the building developed here at least until the 1260s, and thus at a time when there already existed a parallel incorporated city. The burghers’ commune ruled by Magdeburg law occupied a zone located to the east of the older settlement, and its centre became the marketplace, called the Rynek (Market Square). The results of archaeological research determined the origins of the Rynek to the second or third decade of the 13th century. The demographic basis of the new commune was settlers from the territories of the German Empire. The lords of the city were dukes from the Silesian line of the Piast dynasty. The rapid development of this structure in the new legal and economic conditions resulted already in the 13th century in the disintegration of older urban elements. The research results allow for the conclusion that a regular spatial structure was formed due to several arrangement actions. As early as in the 13th century the area of the city expanded to the south and west. In the east side, the New City was created, ending the spatial development of the medieval Wrocław.Analiza wyników nowych badań wykopaliskowych prowadzonych we Wrocławiu pozwala podsumować aktualną wiedzę o rozwoju średniowiecznego miasta i wyciągnąć nowe wnioski dotyczące przemian jego struktury przestrzennej. Ciągły, dynamiczny charakter zmian, uwarunkowany był jednak wydarzeniami politycznymi, koniunkturą gospodarczą, sytuacją demograficzną i aktami prawnymi. Rozłożony w czasie przebieg miał też przełom lokacyjny. W warunkach mocnej władzy książęcej stare elementy kompleksu osadniczego egzystowały przez dziesięciolecia obok nowej, wyróżnionej prawnie gminy kolonistów z Zachodu.

„Rodzime i obce” w krajobrazie kulturowym średniowiecznych ziem polskich

The article purpose is to indicate some questions and problems concerning transformations of cultural landscape of Central Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, with particular concern turned towards Polish grounds. The attention was mainly directed to colonization effects and cultural influences, transported from the West in 13th century. Simultaneously, an attempt was undertaken to outline references to the role of substrates of ‘domestic’ and ‘foreign’ in forming civilization picture of late Middle Ages. The research was based on observations of transformations occurring in villages, towns, elites’ seats, mining centers, together with accompanying settlement, craftsmanship, and objects of material culture related with it, both usable and symbolic ones.Village. Mediaeval village is not in Polish archaeology a subject of intense studies. Its picture and conditions shaping it in the area of Central Eastern Europe can be concluded first of all on the base of historic literature and elaborations of Czech and German archaeologists (Klápště 2005, pp. 167–292; Biermann 2010). It is stated that economical and settlement transformations took place during inflows of colonists settled on the ground in accordance with new law. Intensification of agricultural production resulted from agrarian techniques, improvement, resigning of present feudal charges and introducing rent in coins or crops.Strongholds and castles. There is a fundamental difference between a ducal or royal early mediaeval stronghold and a private feudal castle. Superior function of the first mentioned was administrative regulation of state matters, while the others cared for managing their own property and emphasizing their belonging to social elites. The studied areas presented readable signs of their mutual overlapping and coexisting. Constructive and technical elements of a feudal castle were introduced from the turn of 12th century. However, evolution of its social function was blocked by state control of fortified constructions erecting. External patterns had to be adjusted to local reality, both in social and economic dimensions. Castles built in 13th century were still dynastic properties. Private fortified complexes appeared in 14th century and economic conditions decided about their predominant forms. Apart from state castles of a relatively high quality, rather modest private manors, referring to construction of motte type were erected.Towns. Until 13th century there had existed in the grounds of Central Eastern Europe centers which could be defined as proto towns. They concentrated administrative, military, religious and economic functions. Patterns from outside, brought in 13th century new social town structures, new character of financial obligations, new model of economy. Spatial organization enabling functioning in new reality was also transformed. Mutual relations between the burghers and the town authority was regulated by legal agreement. Studying ‘domestic and foreign’ in 13th century towns we conclude that town inhabitants are also foreign elements. The town ruler – a duke or Church hierarch appearing as an entrepreneur of an investment within his land is a ‘domestic’ element. The biggest and the richest towns were created by overtaking the functions of big centers already existing. The smaller ones were frequently organized at local administrative and military centers.Mining. Obtaining mineral raw material by mining was one of the base of a process defined sometimes as commercialization of Central Eastern Europe. Transforming fiscal system into money obligations and town development in constant progress together with non agrarian economy created the situation that own ore sources became the catalyst of economic increase. The picture of mining before the reception of western patterns should be regarded as a very moderate one and it displays only salt mining in Bochnia and Wieliczka, based on technologically simple method of taking out saline solution. Lead mining in the borderline of Silesian – Lesser Poland is also of local genesis, confirmed both by written sources and archaeological ones excavated recently. Intensification of mining and steel milling activities in 13th century was connected with the increase of economic significance of Sudetes-Carpathians zone. Its reasons are complex; and identifying it with simple acceptance of external patterns would be a simplification of the problem. In general, it was rather the growing demand for non-ferrous metals, resulting from accelerated region economic development. We see in it the cause of creating gold and silver mines in Przedgórze Sudeckie and the Sudetes. The mining activity was accompanied by new rural backup and located towns, and all that system was controlled from newly erected castles. Mining techniques employed did not differ from the ones known in 12th century in the Black Forest, Harz and Saxony.Craftsmanship. Accelerating economic development and production increase was one of characteristic features of late Middle Ages in Central Eastern Europe. It was possible, among the others, due to implementing in the large scale, the tools and techniques enabling multiplications in obtaining almost identical objects, ornaments etc. during manufacturing process. Spectrum of productive raw materials expanded substantially. Activity of local artistic pottery is today exceptionally well documented. Some of the workshops manufactured, except for ceramics of daily usage, products which can be classified as artistic items – tiles or figures of religious or ludic meaning. Small figurative artistic items were also made of metal, mainly tin. In late Middle Ages and early modern times, imitations of forms and ornaments known earlier in the West, changing only the raw material, were frequently practiced. It is often observed that ornament and form of clay objects refer to glass items.Museum collections have preserved numerous historic artifacts connected with flourishing guild activity with interesting manufacturers’ signs pressed with a stamp on the products.Trade. Appearance of credits and procedures connected with these facts were the novelties in social life, however, tracing these phenomena escape, unfortunately, the archaeological research. We note better situation in case of pawns, to which three deposits from: Środa Śląska, Opole and Szczecin are classified. The main market place became the center of all trades, and in bigger towns there were more smaller side ones with narrow specialization. Within this square, defined as ‘fair place’, besides buildings connected with authorities’ functioning (town hall, pillory), market functioning facilities appeared: cloth hall, town scales, mints, metal melting posts and stalls. Obvious reference to legal rules is clearly marked, manifested at the market place by, e.g. a figure of Roland, a hat, gloves, etc. The town hall or a special scales building room patterns of measures and scales. The character of scales and weights also changed. They were made of copper alloys, and besides old marking traditions connected with weigh-currency system, signs of ownership and guarantee: state – royal, ducal, urban appeared. Folded scales, known before, were still dominating. Rarely, the scales had a coin imprint or an image of St. George. Scales for weighing coins became smaller and flatter in form of a triangle and a circle. Wooden or more rarely metal examples of scales for quick establishing the proper weigh of a coin were absolute novelty. In late Middle Ages, the ’grzywna’ (mark), which mass in various countries was different, but all of them had their origin in Koln unit with the weigh of about 233 g, was a basic weigh measuring unit. It divided into 4 wiarduneks, 8 ounces and 16 drams, 24 skojecs. Nominal interest rate was 240 and as it is always in case of money, it was often much higher than the real interest rate. At the territory of Kingdom of Poland and Silesia ‘the grzywna’ with the weigh of about 197 g was established and it is defined as Polish, Krakow or Wrocław ‘grzywna’. In territories where bracteates dominated, special metal containers (Brakteatendose) for their storing appeared. In 14th century Silesia started to mint also gold coins. Due to the fact of cloth trade development, lead seals and seal pliers appeared. In turn, because of dynamic cattle trade, stamps for marking animals were produced.Kitchen utensils and table culture. In late Middle Ages, table sets underwent significant modernization and diversification; collection of forms and material became much richer. Besides clay and wooden tableware being in predominance before, vessels of glass and tin appeared. Spoon and knife were still basic cutlery, sometimes richly ornamented knives for serving dishes were used. Wooden plank dishes were still popular, but wheel thrown vessels started to appear now and then. Glass dishes, treated in general as Czech products characterized with significant diversity.Badges. With limited command of writing an image, picture was an important mean of social communications, because it was easy to multiply it. The fact is confirmed by tin badges with a pin, loops to sew or a small tongue which after placing it in textile was bent down. Images on these badges depict totality of mediaeval life, both in profanum, and sacrum spheres. The problem is, however, to interpret correctly symbolics and functions of these objects.Scholarization. Late Middle Ages is a period of increase in a number of literate people. Command of writing and counting rules were indispensable for financial operations performing. This progress has left the traces in form of material heritage, like school buildings, but also wax tablets with school exercises or merchant calculations, leather tablet cases, very richly ornamented, styluses and inkpots. Writing and reading in poor light caused sight worsening, therefore spectacles were being manufactured.Court culture. Appearance of knighthood was not only connected with fortified seats or armory, but also with forming a particular court (knightly) culture, with its phenomenon known as courtly love, which material signs are more and more frequent in archaeological finds in Polish grounds. They consist of amulets, wreaths/diadems and gifts with symbols of faith and love.Piety. Bone relics of rosaries production are the most frequently spotted material sign of townsmen piety. Devotional accessories include also rarely found crosses and figures of saints, small jugs of Hansekanne type with religious plaques and pilgrims’ plaques.Hygiene and cosmetics. We do not observe any revolutionary changes in hygiene accessories forms in the late Middle Ages. Double-sided combs occur more often and they are a little shorter than examples of early Middle Ages. Metal lavabo rarely appeared in burghers house, they were made rather of clay. Mirrors were the novelty.Ornaments and clothes accessories. Garments. Temple bows had been the main ornament of Slavic women of early Middle Ages, they gradually disappeared in 13th century. Rings from the same period were characterized by simplicity of forms, but had been made of various materials. Late mediaeval period changed the assortment of jewelry. Hair pins and neck decorations appeared, and rings became more sophisticated in forms. Distinguishing separated ornaments from dress accessories is not always possible. Belt clasps and fittings also changed into more elaborated.Footwear is rather well recognized, with pattens as a new type. This originally outside protective footwear transformed with time into sophisticated richly ornamented women sandals. * Studies on ‘domestic’ and ‘foreign’ elements of mediaeval Polish grounds’ culture after the civilization breakthrough observed in 13th century seem to prove that barely few of the analyzed phenomena can be obviously defined as syncretist phenomena. Simultaneously, the comparison of selected aspects of life in early and late Middle Ages was made constituting good base for discussion on the character of changes, defined in short as colonization. The answer to the question when late Middle Ages starts in Polish territories is not univocal. These grounds are strongly culturally diversified. Hanseatic Baltic zone, Silesia and Krakow, where novelties appear much earlier distinguish from the other parts of the Kingdom of Poland.Celem artykułu jest wskazanie niektórych pytań i problemów dotyczących przemian krajobrazu kulturowego Europy Środkowowschodniej w średniowieczu, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem ziem polskich. Uwagę zwrócono głównie na efekty kolonizacji i wpływów kulturowych transponowanych z zachodu w XIII wieku. Jednocześnie podjęto próbę odniesienia się do roli substratów „rodzimego” i „obcego” w kształtowaniu obrazu cywilizacji późnego średniowiecza. Przeprowadzono obserwację przemian wsi, miast, siedzib elitarnych, górnictwa wraz z towarzyszącym mu osadnictwem, rzemiosła, a także związanych z nimi przedmiotów kultury materialnej, zarówno utylitarnych, jak i symbolicznych.Wieś. Średniowieczna wieś nie jest w polskiej archeologii przedmiotem intensywnych badań. O jej obrazie i o kształtujących ją w Europie Środkowowschodniej uwarunkowaniach możemy wnioskować przede wszystkim na podstawie literatury historycznej oraz opracowań archeologów czeskich i niemieckich (Klápště 2005, s. 167–292; Biermann 2010). Uznaje się, że przemiany gospodarki i osadnictwa odbywały się w trakcie napływu kolonistów osadzanych na nowym prawie. Intensyfikacja produkcji rolniczej wynikała z poprawy technik agrarnych, rezygnacji z dotychczasowych obciążeń feudalnych i wprowadzeniu czynszu w pieniądzu lub zbożu.Grody i zamki. Istnieje zasadnicza społeczna różnica między książęcym bądź królewskim grodem wczesnośredniowiecznym a prywatnym zamkiem feudalnym. Nadrzędną funkcją pierwszych była administracyjna regulacja spraw państwowych, zaś drugich zarządzanie własnym majątkiem ziemskim i podkreślenie przynależności do elity społecznej. Na badanym terenie można obserwować ich nakładanie się i współwystępowanie. Budowlane i techniczne elementy zamku feudalnego wprowadzane były od przełomu XII i XIII wieku. Ewolucję funkcji społecznej blokowała jednak państwowa kontrola budowy założeń obronnych. Zewnętrzne wzorce musiały być dostosowane do miejscowych realiów, zarówno społecznych, jak i ekonomicznych. Zamki powstające w XIII wieku w dalszym ciągu były własnością dynastyczną. Prywatne siedziby obronne pojawiły się w wieku XIV, a o ich dominującej formie zadecydowały warunki ekonomiczne. Obok państwowych zamków, relatywnie wysokiej jakości, powstawały raczej skromne prywatne dwory nawiązujące do założeń typu motte.Miasta. Do XIII wieku na terenie Europy Środkowowschodniej istniały ośrodki centralne, które można określić jako protomiasta. Łączyły one funkcje administracyjne, militarne, religijne i gospodarcze. Zewnętrzne wzorce zaowocowały w XIII wieku nową strukturą społeczną miasta, nowym charakterem obciążeń fiskalnych, nowym modelem gospodarki. Zmieniono także organizację przestrzenną, umożliwiającą funkcjonowanie w nowej rzeczywistości. Relacje między mieszczanami a panem miasta regulowała umowa prawna. Badając „rodzime i obce” w miastach XIII–XIV wieku stwierdzimy, że obcy są także mieszkańcy miast. Pierwiastkiem rodzimym jest pan miasta – książę bądź dostojnik kościelny występujący w charakterze przedsiębiorcy prowadzącego na swojej ziemi inwestycję. Największe i najbogatsze miasta powstały poprzez przejęcie funkcji dużych ośrodków już istniejących. Mniejsze organizowano często przy lokalnych ośrodkach administracyjnych i militarnych.Górnictwo. Górnicze pozyskiwanie surowców mineralnych było jedną z podstaw procesu niekiedy określanego jako komercjalizacja Europy Środkowowschodniej. Przestawienie systemu fiskalnego na obciążenia w pieniądzu, a także postępujący rozwój miast z ich nieagrarną gospodarką sprawiły, że własne źródła kruszców stały się katalizatorem wzrostu ekonomicznego. Obraz górnictwa przed recepcją zachodnich wzorców uznać trzeba za skromny. Można w nim umieścić pozyskiwanie soli w Bochni i Wieliczce oparte na prostej technicznie metodzie czerpania solanki. Miejscową genezę ma też górnictwo ołowiu na pograniczu śląsko-małopolskim, co potwierdzają zarówno przekazy pisane, jak i pozyskane w ostatnich latach źródła archeologiczne. Intensyfikacja działalności górniczej i hutniczej w XIII wieku wiązała się ze wzrostem gospodarczego znaczenia strefy sudecko-karpackiej. Jej przyczyny są złożone; identyfikowanie z prostym przejęciem wzorów zewnętrznych stanowiłoby uproszczenie problemu. Głównie było to raczej narastające zapotrzebowanie na metale nieżelazne, wynikające z przyspieszonego rozwoju gospodarczego regionu. W tym widzimy przyczynę powstania kopalni złota i srebra na Przedgórzu Sudeckim i w Sudetach. Działalności górniczej towarzyszyły nowe zaplecze wiejskie i miasta lokacyjne, a całość kontrolowana była z nowo powstających zamków. Zastosowane techniki górnicze nie odbiegały od znanych w XII wieku w Szwarcwaldzie, Harzu i Saksonii.Rzemiosło. Przyspieszenie rozwoju gospodarczego i wzrostu produkcji było jedną z charakterystycznych cech późnego średniowiecza Europy Środkowowschodniej. Stało się to możliwe między innymi dzięki zastosowaniu na szeroką skalę narzędzi i technik umożliwiających wielokrotne uzyskiwanie niemal identycznego przedmiotu, ornamentu itd. Rozszerzeniu uległo spectrum surowców produkcyjnych. Wyjątkowo dobrze mamy dziś udokumentowaną działalność miejscowego garncarstwa artystycznego. Niektóre garncarnie wytwarzały, oprócz ceramiki codziennego użytku, także wyroby, które określić można jako artystyczne, jak kafle czy figurki o znaczeniu religijnym bądź ludycznym. Drobną plastykę figuralną wykonywano także z metalu, głównie z cyny. W późnym średniowieczu i wczesnej nowożytności naśladowano także formy i ornament wyrobów znanych wcześniej na Zachodzie, zwłaszcza naczyń, zmieniając jednak surowiec. Nierzadko ornament i forma egzemplarzy glinianych nawiązuje do wyrobów szklanych.W kolekcjach muzealnych zachowało się wiele zabytków związanych z bogatą działalnością cechową. Interesujące w tym kontekście są znaki wytwórców, bite puncą na wyrobach.Handel. Nowością było pojawienie się kredytu i zjawisk z nim związanych, co jednak wymyka się badaniom archeologa. Lepszą sytuację mamy w przypadku zastawów, do których zaliczamy trzy depozyty: ze Środy Śląskiej, Opola i Szczecina. Głównym miejscem handlu stał się centralny plac targowy, a w większych ośrodkach także place pomocnicze, o wąskiej specjalizacji. Na targu, określanym jako „rynek”, obok budynków związanych z funkcjonowaniem władzy (ratusz, pręgierz) pojawiły się urządzenia targowe, jak sukiennice, wagi miejskie, mennice, topnie metali i kramy. Zaznacza się tu wyraźny związek z prawem, co manifestuje się na rynku między innymi figurą Rolanda, kapeluszem, rękawicami itd. W ratuszu bądź w budynku wagi umieszczano wzorce miar i wag. Zmienił się także charakter wag i odważników. Wykonane były ze stopów miedzi, a obok dawnej tradycji znakowania związanego z systemem wagowo-pieniężnym pojawiły się znaki własnościowo-gwarancyjne: państwowe – królewskie, książęce, miejskie. Nadal dominowały znane wcześniej składane wagi szalkowe. Sporadycznie na szalkach umieszczano odcisk monety lub wizerunek św. Jerzego. Szalki wag do odważania monet stały się mniejsze i płaskie, w kształcie trójkąta i koła. Zupełną nowością natomiast były drewniane lub rzadziej metalowe egzemplarze do szybkiego ustalenia czy moneta ma właściwą wagę. W późnym średniowieczu podstawową jednostką wagi była grzywna (marka), której masa w różnych krajach była wprawdzie różna, ale wszystkie wywodziły się z grzywny kolońskiej o wadze około 233 g. Ta jednostka dzieliła się na 4 wiardunki, 8 uncji i 16 łutów oraz 24 skojce. Stopa nominalna wynosiła 240 i, jak zawsze w dziejach pieniądza, często była znacznie wyższa od stopy realnej. Na terenie Królestwa Polskiego i na Śląsku ustaliła się grzywna o wadze około 197 g, która określana jest jako polska, krakowska bądź wrocławska. Tam, gdzie dominowały brakteaty, pojawiły się specjalne metalowe pojemniki (Brakteatendose) do ich przechowywania. W XIV wieku na Śląsku zaczęto bić także monetę złotą. W związku z rozwiniętym handlem suknem pojawiły się ołowiane plomby oraz plombownice. Z kolei śladem ożywionego handlu bydłem są piętna do wypalania znaków (ryc. 14b).Sprzęt kuchenny i kultura stołu. W późnym średniowieczu zastawa stołowa uległa wyraźnemu urozmaiceniu; bogatszy był nie tylko zestaw form, ale także surowca. Obok dominujących wcześniej wyrobów glinianych i drewnianych pojawiły się także naczynia szklane i cynowe. Nadal podstawowymi sztućcami były łyżka i nóż, niekiedy występowały także bogato zdobione noże do serwowania potraw. Nie malała popularność drewnianych naczyń klepkowych, ale coraz częstsze są wyroby toczone. Różnorodnością charakteryzowały się szklane, na ogół traktowane jako wyrób czeski.Odznaki (badges). Przy ograniczonej znajomości pisma ważny środek komunikacji społecznej stanowił obraz, który można było łatwo i wielokrotnie powielać. Świadectwem tego są cynowe znaki ze szpilką do wpinania, uszkami do przyszycia bądź trzpieniami, które po wpięciu zaginano. Przedstawienia na znakach odzwierciedlają całokształt życia średniowiecznego zarówno w sferze profanum, jak i sacrum. Problemem jest prawidłowe określenie symboliki i funkcji tych zabytków.Scholaryzacja. W późnym średniowieczu znacznie zwiększyła się liczba ludzi potrafiących czytać i pisać. Znajomość pisma i zasad rachunkowości niezbędna była do prowadzenia operacji finansowych. Materialną pozostałością tych nowości są nie tylko budynki szkolne, ale także na przykład tabliczki woskowe z zadaniami szkolnymi czy rachunkami kupieckimi oraz skórzane, na ogół bogat

Nowy Targ square in Wrocław in the light of excavations in 2010–2012

Podstawą źródłową artykułu są materiały z badań placu Nowy Targ we wschodniej części Starego Miasta we Wrocławiu. Na powierzchni 40 arów odsłonięto świadectwa przemian zachodzących tam od fazy protomiejskiej, przez lokację miasta, wytyczenie placu i jego funkcjonowanie przez pięć stuleci.Nowy Targ square is located in the eastern part of the Old Town in Wrocław, in an area of long and varied history, bursting with rich relics of the past deposited in the form of cultural layers. A necessity of undertaking there excavations in 2010 resulted from the commencement of investment activities related to the construction of an underground car park. The location and size of the trench were determined by the construction project. The excavations covered an area of nearly 40 ares in the southern part of the square, obtaining previously unreachable scientific possibilities. The excavations were carried out in accordance with the principles of stratigraphic methods. It was assumed that the order of formation of excavated features was diachronic, and by their registration a modified and adapted to the nature of the site Edward Harris’s system was applied. To this method was subject the documentation scheme. The results illustrated several events or time breakthrough trends for the area in question, fixed by relevant material sources. We identify them as phases of land use, being aware of the arbitrariness of the term. A simplification introduced in this way will help to organize the description of the history of use of the area in question. The area is located on the left bank terrace of the Odra River, formed in this place by riverine sands covered with a layer of light brown alluvial soil with a thickness of 30 cm. The soil survived only in small portions and its top parts were mixed in the initial stage of land use. The level of its top was between 115.35–115.60 m above sea level, showing a slight inclination from the west to the east. Eight successive phases of use of this place (I–VIII) were determined. Phase I represents the beginnings of settlement on the left bank of the Odra River. Features related to it are mostly pits of indeterminate function – perhaps parts of semi-sunken buildings and postsholes – some with remains of wattle or log constructions. This phase is dated to the 11th–12th century. Phase II is a continuation of the development of the left bank settlement. In a related layer features and artefacts were recorded, which can be dated to the second half of the 12th and early 13th century. Phase III (proto-urban) is a stage in the development of settlement characterized by a considerable intensification of exploitation of land, reflected by the richness of a complex stratigraphic sequence. In the layer corresponding to this phase numerous pottery fragments and various metal items were found. The source material as well as the dendrochronological dates allow to date the phase to the 13th century – from its first decades to about the 1260s–1270s. Phase IV – associated with the liquidation of the built-up area and demarcation of Nowy Targ square, probably along with a regular grid of streets surrounding it – is dated to the second half of the 13th century. Phase V reflects an early stage of Nowy Targ square functioning, in layers associated with it wooden troughs and pipes for transport of water were found connected with wells built of laths. This phase is dated to the second half of the 13th and early 14th century. Phase VI represents the continuation of use of the market square in the 14th century. The corresponding layers contained remains of wooden structures (post, wattle constructions). Phase VII determines the period of the square use at the end of the 14th century. Remains of this stage are fragments of pottery, leather, animal bones, metal artefacts as well as relics of brick and wooden structures. Phase VIII corresponds to the period of the square use in Post-medieval period, between the 16th and 18th centuries. In layers associated with it relics of a Baroque fountain were recorded. This paper is a preliminary presentation of the results of excavations at Nowy Targ square in Wrocław. Further analysis will allow to create clear conclusions concerning the beginnings of settlement and spatial changes in the area in question.Agnieszka Uziębł

A city and river in pre-industrial East-Central Europe. Case study: Wrocław

The aim of the article is to assess the relationship between living conditions in the city and the natural environment determined by a large lowland river. This problem was examined via the example of Wrocław, the main city in Lower Silesia, which developed on the border of cultural and political zones. The natural hydrographic network and the scope of anthropogenic changes are presented. Also analysed are aspects of the land’s suitability for construction, water supply techniques for crafts and townspeople’s houses, drainage techniques, protection of street and squares surfaces against mud, and the use of water for defensive purposes. The chronological framework extends from the beginning of settlement to industrialisation and the introduction of modern water and sewage techniques in the 19th century.The aim of the article is to assess the relationship between living conditions in the city and the natural environment determined by a large lowland river. This problem was examined via the example of Wrocław, the main city in Lower Silesia, which developed on the border of cultural and political zones. The natural hydrographic network and the scope of anthropogenic changes are presented. Also analysed are aspects of the land’s suitability for construction, water supply techniques for crafts and townspeople’s houses, drainage techniques, protection of street and squares surfaces against mud, and the use of water for defensive purposes. The chronological framework extends from the beginning of settlement to industrialisation and the introduction of modern water and sewage techniques in the 19th century

Historyczny krajobraz kulturowy subregionu zachodnich Sudetów. Uwagi o metodzie badań

Artykuł prezentuje wyniki badań prowadzonych w rejonie  zachodnich Sudetów (głównie Góry Izerskie) przez interdyscyplinarny zespół. Kilkuletnie prace skupiały się na rozpoznaniu krajobrazu kulturowego tego regionu od okresu średniowiecza do czasów nowożytnych. Szeroko zakrojone ramy projektu obejmowały analizę licznych struktur antropogenicznych identyfikowanych na mapach archiwalnych z różnych okresów (od XVIII do XX wieku) i danych lidarowych oraz ich weryfikację terenową. W wybranych lokalizacjach prowadzone były prace wykopaliskowe lub przy użyciumetod nieinwazyjnych. Zadokumentowano i zweryfikowano wiele śladów związanych z dawnym górnictwem, szklarstwem, zanikłym osadnictwem. Autorzy przedstawili korzyści i wady wynikające z podjętych analiz

Historical archaeology in Central Europe. Some preliminary remarks

Celem artykułu jest wskazanie ogólnego zarysu archeologii historycznej. Autor zwraca uwagę na genezę tej specjalności i problem jej definicji, możliwości poznawcze i główne nurty rozwoju, a także na funkcję społeczną. Podejmuje próbę oceny relacji archeologii czasów nowych do historii sensu stricto opartej o analizę przekazów pisanych. Wskazano przy tym na dyskusję toczącą się w literaturze przedmiotu. Zwraca także uwagę na konieczność współpracy archeologii historycznej z innymi dyscyplinami nauki i właściwego wykorzystania nowych metod. Zjawiska dotyczące szeroko pojętej Europy Środkowej osadza w realiach globalnych.The purpose of this article is to provide a general outline of historical archaeology. The author turns attention to the genesis of this speciality, the problem of its definition, its cognitive possibilities, and the main directions of the development, as well as its social function. He attempts to evaluate the relation between the archaeology of modern times and history sensu stricto, based on the analysis of written records. This includes references to debates taking place in source literature. The author also shows the need for cooperation between historical archaeology and other disciplines of science and for making proper use of new methods. He embeds phenomena concerning the broadly-conceived Central Europe in global realities

Policentryczne struktury protomiast Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej

THE POLYCENTRIC STRUCTURES OF PROTO-CITIESIN CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE The problem in defining the phenomenon of proto-cities, which preceded the phase of intensive urbanization in Central and Eastern Europe in the 13th c., reflects their actual qualities, which differed from those of later towns. Proto-cities came in several varieties, including post--antiquity ones on the Rhine and the Danube near the limes, sea trade emporia, and proto-cities crystallized around prominent centres of government. Those of the last group were usually situated inland and characteristically divided into several parts. Although it is difficult to differentiate proto-cities definitively from other types of urbani-zation phenomena, it is possible to point out examples of best developed ones. In inland Central and Eastern Europe these include Prague, Wrocław (Breslau) and Cracow. Each of them played the central role in its region and was a heterogeneous multipartite structure located on big river. Each included fortified seats of government and bishopric, centres of non-agricultural economy, residences of magnates and convents, as well as agricultural settlements. Determined by par-ticular natural conditions, each proto-city developed its own individual character. The development of a proto-city was always a long and complex process. Its subsequently emerging segments had different functions, depending on the current economic situation and on political, military and religious needs. A proto-city had no linear borders and it is difficult to decide which of the surrounding settlements should be treated as permanently linked with it. The oldest proto-city cemeteries were located outside the populated zone; they were burial fields with scattered graves. It seems that in Wrocław and Cracow churches were built on already existing cemeteries to extend control over them. On the basis of material facts and written sources it may be concluded that before the era of chartered towns proto-cities had communities of foreign guests; archaeological finds indicate that these were affluent groups. Western-style stone and wooden buildings can be linked with German, Romance and Jewish colonies, mentioned in written sources from the 2nd half of the 12th c. and the early decades of the 13th c. It was those communities that facilitated trade beyond the local level and transmitted information vital for economy, technology, crafts, building, lifestyle and general civilization progress. Functioning in this way, proto-cities were a phenomenon reflecting the needs, as well as demographic, political, legal and economic conditioning of their time. Changes in those conditions that occurred in the 13th c. led to their transformation into chartered towns, a form more suited to new needs

Wild Mammals in the Economy of Wrocław (Poland) as an Example of a Medieval and Modern Era City in the Light of Interdisciplinary Research

The purpose of this article was to determine the role of wild animals in the economy of a historical city on the basis of archaeological and cultural layers of medieval and early modern Wrocław from the 11th to the 17th century. Archaeozoological analyses were applied, mainly encompassing the percentage share of particular animal species and the research of material culture, i.e., items manufactured from bones, antlers and hides of wild animals. The collected data were compared with written sources. As a result of the following analysis, a low but stable frequency of bone remains in urban layers and is evidence for occasional breaching of the medieval hunting laws by burghers, possibly driven by the opportunity to sell meat and other wild animal products on the markets. Moreover, the relatively low amounts of items made from bones, antlers and wild animal leather may indicate low availability or seasonality (shed antler) of the materials, which might have indirectly raised the product price. Additionally, the area around Wrocław did not feature large forest complexes, which are habitats of wild game, thus explaining the low frequency of wild animal remains in the archaeozoological material

Aktuelle Forschungen zu Produktion, Verarbeitung, Speicherung und Verteilung von Nahrung im mittelalterlichen ländlichen Niederschlesien

The paper deals with the issues of food production, processing, storage and distribution in Silesia in the mid-11th to the mid-16th centuries. Published papers, as well as, unpublished excavation reports have been taken into consideration. Special attention has been devoted to the region of the capital city of Wrocław, where food production and distribution, both in the urban centre and its rural background have been studied