Polarization studies in electromagnetic scattering by small Solar-system particles

In remote-sensing studies, particles that are comparable to the wavelength exhibit characteristic features in electromagnetic scattering, especially in the degree of linear polarization. These features vary with the physical properties of the particles, such as shape, size, refractive index, and orientation. In the thesis, the direct problem of computing the unknown scattered quantities using the known properties of the particles and the incident radiation is solved at both optical and radar spectral regions in a unique way. The internal electromagnetic fields of wavelength-scale particles are analyzed by using both novel and established methods to show how the internal fields are related to the scattered fields in the far zone. This is achieved by using the tools and methods that were developed specifically to reveal the internal field structure of particles and to study the mechanisms that relate the structure to the scattering characteristics of those particles. It is shown that, for spherical particles, the internal field is a combination of a forward propagating wave with the apparent wavelength determined by the refractive index of the particle, and a standing wave pattern with the apparent wavelength the same as for the incident wave. Due to the surface curvature and dielectric nature of the particle, the incident wave front undergoes a phase shift, and the resulting internal wave is focused mostly at the forward part of the particle similar to an optical lens. This focusing is also seen for irregular particles. It is concluded that, for both spherical and nonspherical particles, the interference at the far field between the partial waves that originate from these concentrated areas in the particle interior, is responsible for the specific polarization features that are common for wavelength-scale particles, such as negative values and local extrema in the degree of linear polarization, asymmetry of the phase function, and enhancement of intensity near the backscattering direction. The papers presented in this thesis solve the direct problem for particles with both simple and irregular shapes to demonstrate that these interference mechanisms are common for all dielectric wavelength-scale particles. Furthermore, it is shown that these mechanisms can be applied to both regolith particles in the optical wavelengths and hydrometeors at microwave frequencies. An advantage from this kind of study is that it does not matter whether the observation is active (e.g., polarimetric radar) or passive (e.g., optical telescope). In both cases, the internal field is computed for two mutually perpendicular incident polarizations, so that the polarization characteristics can then be analyzed according to the relation between these fields and the scattered far field.Kaukokartoitustutkimuksissa aallonpituusluokkaa olevat hiukkaset aiheuttavat niille luonteenomaisia piirteitä sähkömagnettisessa säteilyssä, varsinkin lineaarisen polarisaation asteessa. Nämä piirteet vaihtelevat hiukkasen fyysisten ominaisuuksien, kuten muodon, koon, taitekertoimen ja orientaation myötä. Tässä väitöskirjassa ratkaistaan sähkömagneettisen sironnan suora ongelma uudella tavalla, samalla kun hiukkasten ominaisuudet oletetaan tunnetuiksi. Aallonpituusluokkaa olevien hiukkasten sisäisiä sähkökenttiä analysoidaan sekä uusilla että vakiintuneilla menetelmillä, jotta voidaan osoittaa, mikä on sisäisten kenttien suhde sironneisiin kenttiin kauko-alueessa. Tämä on saavutettu käyttämällä työkaluja ja menetelmiä, jotka on kehitetty paljastamaan sirottajien sisäisen kentän rakenne ja joilla voidaan tutkia mekanismeja, jotka liittävät näiden sirottajien rakenteen niiden sirontaominaisuuksiin. Tutkimuksessa näytetään, että pallomaisten hiukkasten sisäinen kenttä on yhdistelmä eteenpäin etenevää aaltoa, jonka allonpituus määräytyy hiukkasen taitekertoimen mukaan, ja seisovaa aaltoa, jonka aallonpituus on sama kuin tulevan aallon. Koska hiukkanen on eriste ja sen pinta on kaareva, tuleva aaltorintama kokee vaihesiirron ja tuloksena oleva sisäinen aalto fokusoituu pääasiassa hiukkasen etupuolelle optisen linssin tavoin. Tämä fokusointi havaitaan myös epäsäännöllisillä hiukkasilla. Johtopäätöksenä on, sekä pallomaisille että ei-pallomaisille hiukkasille, että kaukokentässä tapahtuva interferenssi osittaisten aaltojen välillä, jotka ovat peräisin näistä fokusoituneista alueista hiukkasen sisällä, on vastuussa tietyistä, aallonpituusluokkaa oleville hiukkasille ominaisista piirteistä lineaarisessa polarisaatiossa, kuten negatiiviset arvot ja paikalliset maksimit, vaihefunktion asymmetria, ja intensiteetin kasvaminen lähellä takaisinsirontasuuntaa. Tässä väitöskirjassa esitellyt paperit ratkaisevat suoran ongelman, sekä yksinkertaisille, että epäsäännöllisille hiukkasille osoittaakseen, että nämä interferenssimekanismit ovat yhteisiä kaikille aallonpituusluokkaa oleville, eristäville sirottajille. Lisäksi näytetään, että näitä mekanismeja voidaan soveltaa sekä regoliittihiukkasille näkyvän valon alueella että hydrometeoriiteille mikroaaltoalueessa. Yksi tällaisen tutkimuksen eduista on, että ei ole merkitystä, onko havaitsija aktiivinen (esim. polarisaatiotutka) vai passiivinen (esim. optinen teleskooppi). Molemmissa tapauksissa sisäinen kenttä lasketaan kahdelle keskenään kohtisuorasti polarisoituneelle tulevalle kentälle, jotta polarisaatiossa havaitut piirteet voidaan analysoida näiden kenttien ja sironneen kentän suhteen avulla

Light scattering by particles with small-scale surface roughness: comparison of four classes of model geometries

We compare four different model geometries for particles with small-scale surface roughness. The geometries are based on regular and stochastic surface perturbations, as well as on 2D- and 3D-roughness models. We further compare T-matrix and discrete dipole computations. Particle size parameters of 5 and 50 are considered, as well as refractive indices of 1.6 + 0.0005i and 3 +0.1i. The effect of small-scale surface roughness on the intensity and polarisation of the scattered light strongly depends on the size parameter and refractive index. In general, 2D surface roughness models predict stronger effects than 3D models. Stochastic surface roughness models tend to predict the strongest depolarising effects, while regular surface roughness models can have a stronger effect on the angular distribution of the scattered intensity. Computations with the discrete dipole approximation only cover a limited range of size parameters. T-matrix computations allow us to significantly extend that range, but at the price of restricting the model particles to symmetric surface perturbations with small amplitudes

Complementarity of wind measurements from co-located X-band weather radar and Doppler lidar

Accurate wind profile measurements are important for applications ranging from aviation to numerical weather prediction. The spatial pattern of winds can be obtained with ground-based remote sensing instruments, such as weather radars and Doppler lidars. As the return signal in weather radars is mostly due to hydrometeors or insects, and in Doppler lidars due to aerosols, the instruments provide wind measurements in different weather conditions. However, the effect of various weather conditions on the measurement capabilities of these instruments has not been previously extensively quantified. Here we present results from a 7-month measurement campaign that took place in Vantaa, Finland, where a co-located Vaisala WRS400 X-band weather radar and WindCube 400S Doppler lidar were employed continuously to perform wind measurements. Both instruments measured plan position indicator (PPI) scans at 2.0 degrees elevation from the horizontal. Direct comparison of radial Doppler velocities from both instruments showed good agreement with R-2 = 0.96. We then examined the effect of horizontal visibility, cloud base height, and precipitation intensity on the measurement availability of each instrument. The Doppler lidar displayed good availability in clear air situations and the X-band radar in precipitation. Both instruments exhibited high availability in clear air conditions in summer when insects were present. The complementary performance in the measurement availability of the two instruments means that their combination substantially increases the spatial coverage of wind observations across a wide range of weather conditions.Peer reviewe

An accurate and computationally cheap microwave scattering method for ice aggregates: the Independent Monomer Approximation

The Discrete Dipole Approximation (DDA) is widely used to simulate scattering of microwaves by snowflakes, by discretising the snowflake into small “dipoles” which oscillate in response to (i) the incident wave and (ii) scattered waves from all the other dipoles in the particle. It is this coupling between all dipole pairs which makes solving the DDA system computationally expensive, and that cost grows non‐linearly as the number of crystals n within an aggregate is increased. Motivated by this, many studies have ignored the dipole coupling (the Rayleigh‐Gans Approximation, RGA). However, use of RGA leads to systematic underestimation of both scattering and absorption, and an inability to predict polarimetric properties. To address this, we present a new approach (the Independent Monomer Approximation, IMA) which solves the DDA system for each crystal “monomer” separately, then combines them to construct the full solution. By including intra‐monomer coupling, but neglecting inter‐monomer coupling, we save a factor of n in computation time over DDA. Benchmarking IMA against DDA solutions indicates that its accuracy is greatly superior to RGA, and provides ensemble scattering cross sections which closely agree with their more expensive DDA counterparts, particularly at size parameters smaller than ∼5. Addition of rime to the aggregates does not significantly degrade the results, despite the increased density. The use of IMA for radar remote sensing is evaluated, and we show that multi‐wavelength and multi‐polarisation parameters are successfully captured to within a few tenths of a dB for aggregates probed with frequencies between 3 and 200GHz, in contrast to RGA where errors of up to 2.5dB are observed. Finally we explore the realism of the IMA solutions in greater detail by analysing internal electric fields, and discuss some broader insights that IMA provides into the physical features of aggregates that are important for microwave scattering

Mini-Symposium-(Dual)-Doppler Wind Radar for Wind Energy Applications-The Wind Energy Science Conference2023 (WESC23)_Glasgow_May23-26

The slides is a collection of the presentation from the mini-symposium — (Dual)-Doppler Wind Radar for Wind Energy Applications, providing comprehensive overview of the latest wind radar technology. The mini-symposium took place in The Wind Energy Science Conference2023 (WESC23) in Glasgow from May23rd- 26th 2023. The mini-symposium features the project Windpark-RADAR (ref. no.03EE3031A) funded by the Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action (BMWK) and the associated first measurement campaign within the scope of "The American WAKE experimeNt" campaign (AWAKEN). A recent study demonstrating the complementarity of wind measurements from co-located X-band weather radar and Doppler lidar was introduced. The presentation also covered the applications of dual-Doppler radar technology, discussed ongoing measurement campaigns (including AWAKEN), and showcased findings from the previous "BEACon" campaign. Furthermore, the methodology to analyze radar-derived wind fields was explained, along with a comparison against in-situ turbine measurements. A summary of the talks: Topic First Author Affiliation Dual Doppler radar for wind energy applications- overview of the 'Wind Farm Radar' project Bernhard Lange Fraunhofer IWES Scanning lidar and X-band radar verification @AWAKEN Lin-Ya (Lilian) Hung Fraunhofer IWES Complementarity wind measurements from co-located X-band weather radar and Doppler lidar Jenna Ritvanen Finnish Meteorological Institute An Overview of the Use of Dual-Doppler Radar For Wind Energy Applications Brian Hirth National Wind Institute, Texas Tech University Dual-Doppler Radar Measurements of Wind Farm Wakes and Interaction during Project AWAKEN Brian Hirth National Wind Institute, Texas Tech University Wakes Between Two Offshore Wind Farms: Measured with Doppler Radar Nicolai Gayle Nygaard Ørsted Characterization of Wind Turbine Flows using Radar-Derived Fields and In-Situ Turbine Measurements Jacob Nadolsky National Wind Institute, Texas Tech Universit

Utö Observatory for Analysing Atmospheric Ducting Events over Baltic Coastal and Marine Waters

Maritime safety relies on navigation, detection, and radio communication technologies that function through electromagnetic radiation. Propagation of electromagnetic radiation can be impacted by a disruptive phenomenon known as ducting. Our four-week study using a X-band coastal radar and various meteorological and marine observations, including vertical profiles of temperature, humidity and wind, in early spring 2022 concluded that the combination of measurements at the Utö observatory provides a reliable means of detecting ducting in the Archipelago Sea. The modified refractivity calculated from the vertical profiles for the 22–59 m and 32–59 m altitude layers and coastal radar over-the-horizon observations agree 77% and 85% of the time, respectively. As such, the modified refractivity gradient can be considered a good indicator for over-the-horizon detection with the Utö coastal radar over the open sea. The horizontal wind profiles also revealed a low-level jet at the radar height that often coincided with the ducting observations. To quantify the results, we created an empirical ducting index which showed that ducting is spatially variable, showing the capabilities of the Utö observatory for research oriented towards monitoring and improving maritime safety and security