Hyperekplexia Phenotype of Glycine Receptor α1 Subunit Mutant Mice Identifies Zn2+ as an Essential Endogenous Modulator of Glycinergic Neurotransmission

SummaryZn2+ is thought to modulate neurotransmission by affecting currents mediated by ligand-gated ion channels and transmitter reuptake by Na+-dependent transporter systems. Here, we examined the in vivo relevance of Zn2+ neuromodulation by producing knockin mice carrying the mutation D80A in the glycine receptor (GlyR) α1 subunit gene (Glra1). This substitution selectively eliminates the potentiating effect of Zn2+ on GlyR currents. Mice homozygous for Glra1(D80A) develop a severe neuromotor phenotype postnatally that resembles forms of human hyperekplexia (startle disease) caused by mutations in GlyR genes. In spinal neurons and brainstem slices from Glra1(D80A) mice, GlyR expression, synaptic localization, and basal glycinergic transmission were normal; however, potentiation of spontaneous glycinergic currents by Zn2+ was significantly impaired. Thus, the hyperekplexia phenotype of Glra1(D80A) mice is due to the loss of Zn2+ potentiation of α1 subunit containing GlyRs, indicating that synaptic Zn2+ is essential for proper in vivo functioning of glycinergic neurotransmission

Ein transgenes Mausmodell zur Untersuchung der Zink-vermittelten Modulation des Glyzinrezeptors

Zink (Zn2+) ist ein im Zentralnervensystem der Säuger weitverbreitetes Metallion, das in kleinen synaptischen Vesikeln hoch angereichert wird. Zink-reiche Vesikel sind besonders gut dokumentiert in exzitatorischen Synapsen, z.B. im Hippocampus, sie werden jedoch auch in inhibitorischen Synapsen von Neuronen des Rückenmarks oder der Retina gefunden. Nach exozytotischer Freisetzung dieser Vesikel in den synaptischen Spalt können Zink-Konzentrationen von bis zu zehn mikromolar erreicht werden. In vitro hat Zink modulatorische Effekte auf eine Vielzahl von Neurotransmitter-Rezeptoren, so u.a. auf Glutamat-Rezeptoren vom AMPA-, NMDA-, oder Kainat-Typ, aber auch auf GABAA- und Glyzinrezeptoren (GlyR). Zink wurde daher als endogener Neuromodulator vorgeschlagen. Der modulatorische Effekt von Zink auf den GlyR ist biphasisch: Niedrige mikromolare Konzentrationen bewirken eine Potenzierung Glyzin-induzierter Ströme, höhere mikromolare Konzentrationen dagegen deren Inhibition. Dieser potenzierende Effekt von Zn2+ kann in transfizierten HEK 293 Zellen oder cRNA-injizierten Xenopus laevis Oozyten durch eine Punktmutation im N-terminalen Bereich des α1-Polypeptids aufgehoben werden (D80A (Lynch et al., 1998), oder D80G (Laube et al., 2000)). Ein revers-genetischer Ansatz wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit benutzt, um Rückschlüsse auf die physiologische Relevanz der Potenzierung Glyzin-induzierter Ströme durch Zn2+ zu gewinnen: In einem „Knock-In“ Mausmodell wurde durch homologe Rekombination in ES-Zellen eine Mutation in der kodierenden Sequenz des GlyRα1-Genlocus eingeführt, die den o.g. AS Austausch (D80A) in der adulten ligandenbinden Untereinheit des GlyR bewirkt. Um die Veränderung des Genlocus zu minimieren war die als Selektionsmarker bei der Einführung der Mutation benötigte Neor-Kassette von zwei loxP-Sequenzen flankiert, und konnte so nach dem Nachweis des homologen Rekombinationsereignisses durch Wirkung der Cre-Rekombinase wieder entfernen werden. Nach Blastozysteninjektion homolog rekombinierter ES-Zellen zur Herstellung chimaerer Tiere und Keimbahntransmission der Mutation in einem Teil dieser Chimaeren konnten so Mauslinien mit zwei verschiedenen mutierten Allelen generiert werden: In zwei Linien wurde das intronisch miteingeführte Neor-Element bereits in ES-Zellen in vitro deletiert, wonach lediglich eine der loxP-Sequenzen verbleibt; in einer dritten Linie wurde der Selektionsmarker als intronische Insertion belassen. Während heterozygote Tiere aller drei Linien keinerlei offensichtliche Auffälligkeiten zeigen, findet sich bei homozygot-mutanten Tieren aller Linien ein mit der zweiten postnatalen Woche eintretender Phänotyp, dessen auffälligste Symptome eine verstärkte akustisch oder taktil induzierbare Schreckreaktion, ein erhöhter Muskeltonus, taktil induzierbarer Tremor und generalisierter Myoklonus sowie ein verlangsamtes Wiederaufrichten sind. Dieser Symtomkomplex ähnelt stark dem der spontanen Mutationen des GlyRs spasmodic, spastic oder oscillator und weist auf einen Verlust glyzinerger Inhibition als Ursache hin. Die verschiedenen Allele verursachen unterschiedlich starke Phänotypen: Das mutierte Allel, in welchem die Neor–Kassette deletiert ist, bewirkt einen schwachen Phänotyp, wohingegen das Verbleiben des intronischen Neor-Elements einen schwerwiegenderen Phänotyp zur Folge hat, und homozygote Tiere bis auf wenige Ausnahmen bis zur achten Lebenswoche sterben. Die Immunoblot-Analyse zeigt, daß bei homozygot mutanten Tieren dieser stärker betroffenen Linie ein partieller Verlust der Proteinexpression der GlyRα -Untereinheit auftritt. Dagegen ist in Tieren, in denen die Neor-Kassette deletiert ist, keine Verringerung der GlyRα-Expression durch Immunoblot nachweisbar. Der milde Phänotyp ist demnach am einfachsten durch den spezifischen pharmakologischen Effekt der Mutation, d. h. den Verlust der Zn2+-induzierten Potenzierung des GlyR, erklärbar. Hiermit wurde erstmals ein Hinweis daraufhin gewonnen, daß niedrige mikromolare Konzentrationen von Zn2+ für die physiologische Funktion des adulten GlyR notwendig sind. Darüberhinaus unterstreichen die Ergebnisse das Potential des GlyR als Ansatzpunkt zur Entwicklung neuer Muskel-relaxierender oder sedativer Substanzen, die - ähnlich der Wirkung von Zn2+ - einen potenzierenden Effekt auf die glyzinerge Inhibition haben

Domain analysis of the calcium-activated potassium channel SK1 from rat brain - Functional expression and toxin sensitivity

Two small conductance, calcium-activated potassium channels (SK channels), SK2 and SK3, have been shown to contribute to the afterhyperpolarization (AHP) and to shape the firing behavior in neurons for example in the hippocampal formation, the dorsal vagal nucleus, the subthalamic nucleus, and the cerebellum. In heterologous expression systems, SK2 and SK3 currents are blocked by the bee venom toxin apamin, just as well as the corresponding neuronal AHP currents. However, the functional role and pharmacological profile of SK1 channels from rat brain (rSK1) is still largely unknown, as so far rSK1 homomeric channels could not be functionally expressed. We have performed a domain analysis to elucidate the pharmacological profile and the molecular determinants of rSK1 channel expression by using channel chimeras in combination with immunocytochemistry, immunoblot analysis, and electrophysiology. Our results reveal that the rSK1 subunit is synthesized in cells but does not form functional homomeric channels. Exchanging the carboxyl terminus of rSK1 for that of hSK1 or rSK2 is sufficient to rescue the functional expression of rSK1 channels. Additionally, transplantation of both amino and carboxyl termini of rSK1 onto hSK1 subunits, normally forming functional homomeric channel, hinders their functional expression, while hSK1 channels containing only the rSK1 carboxyl terminus are functional. These results suggest that the lack of functional expression of rSK1 channels is probably due to problems in their assembly and tetramerization but not in their calmodulin-dependent gating. Finally, we show that chimeric channels containing the core domain (S1 - S6) of rSK1, unlike hSK1, are apamin-insensitive

Hyperekplexia phenotype of glycine receptor alpha1 subunit mutant mice identifies Zn(2+) as an essential endogenous modulator of glycinergic neurotransmission.

Zn(2+) is thought to modulate neurotransmission by affecting currents mediated by ligand-gated ion channels and transmitter reuptake by Na(+)-dependent transporter systems. Here, we examined the in vivo relevance of Zn(2+) neuromodulation by producing knockin mice carrying the mutation D80A in the glycine receptor (GlyR) alpha1 subunit gene (Glra1). This substitution selectively eliminates the potentiating effect of Zn(2+) on GlyR currents. Mice homozygous for Glra1(D80A) develop a severe neuromotor phenotype postnatally that resembles forms of human hyperekplexia (startle disease) caused by mutations in GlyR genes. In spinal neurons and brainstem slices from Glra1(D80A) mice, GlyR expression, synaptic localization, and basal glycinergic transmission were normal; however, potentiation of spontaneous glycinergic currents by Zn(2+) was significantly impaired. Thus, the hyperekplexia phenotype of Glra1(D80A) mice is due to the loss of Zn(2+) potentiation of alpha1 subunit containing GlyRs, indicating that synaptic Zn(2+) is essential for proper in vivo functioning of glycinergic neurotransmission

Impact of outdoor winter sports on the abundance of a key indicator species of alpine ecosystems

Tourism and leisure activities have increased continuously all over the world during the past decades, exerting a growing pressure upon naturally fragile ecosystems, such as mountainous habitats. Recent studies have established that disturbance by outdoor winter sports (e.g. skiing, snowboarding and snowshoeing) is a source of stress for wildlife. This may in turn affect its abundance, but we still lack quantitative evidence. We tested the effect of outdoor winter sports (ski lifts and related recreational activities) on the abundance of the alpine black grouse Tetrao tetrix, a vulnerable indicator species of the timberline ecosystem, the favoured habitat for outdoor winter sports in the European Alps. Generalized linear models and a model selection approach were used to rank environmental factors influencing black grouse abundance and to make predictions about population status in the theoretical absence of ski resorts. We modelled the number of displaying cocks along census transects in spring, as a function of habitat characteristics (vegetation structure and typology), ski lift density and hunting pressure at 15 natural sites (none or a very low level of anthropogenic disturbance) and 15 ski resorts in the south-western Swiss Alps. Ski lift density and habitat typology were the principal determinants of black grouse abundance, whereas hunting pressure had no discernable effect. Ski lifts and related winter sport activities had a strong negative effect on the number of displaying cocks, which may have led to a mean 36% reduction of local abundance in ski lift areas, as determined after controlling for the confounding effect of habitat type. Synthesis and applications. Conservation action plans for black grouse should aim at reducing the multiple negative effects generated by outdoor winter sports (ski facilities and related winter sport activities). First, vegetation patchiness (i.e. a mosaic of grassy shrubland with scattered trees) should be maintained along ski runs. Secondly, wintering preserves where human access is banned or strictly limited should be promoted within ski resorts. Spatially explicit human–wildlife conflict maps can be constructed from the present model to allow delineation of those areas likely to become effective protection areas

Early and Rapid Identification of COVID-19 Patients with Neutralizing Type I Interferon Auto-antibodies.

Funder: Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin (3093)PURPOSE: Six to 19% of critically ill COVID-19 patients display circulating auto-antibodies against type I interferons (IFN-AABs). Here, we establish a clinically applicable strategy for early identification of IFN-AAB-positive patients for potential subsequent clinical interventions. METHODS: We analyzed sera of 430 COVID-19 patients from four hospitals for presence of IFN-AABs by ELISA. Binding specificity and neutralizing activity were evaluated via competition assay and virus-infection-based neutralization assay. We defined clinical parameters associated with IFN-AAB positivity. In a subgroup of critically ill patients, we analyzed effects of therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) on the levels of IFN-AABs, SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and clinical outcome. RESULTS: The prevalence of neutralizing AABs to IFN-α and IFN-ω in COVID-19 patients from all cohorts was 4.2% (18/430), while being undetectable in an uninfected control cohort. Neutralizing IFN-AABs were detectable exclusively in critically affected (max. WHO score 6-8), predominantly male (83%) patients (7.6%, 18/237 for IFN-α-AABs and 4.6%, 11/237 for IFN-ω-AABs in 237 patients with critical COVID-19). IFN-AABs were present early post-symptom onset and at the peak of disease. Fever and oxygen requirement at hospital admission co-presented with neutralizing IFN-AAB positivity. IFN-AABs were associated with lower probability of survival (7.7% versus 80.9% in patients without IFN-AABs). TPE reduced levels of IFN-AABs in three of five patients and may increase survival of IFN-AAB-positive patients compared to those not undergoing TPE. CONCLUSION: IFN-AABs may serve as early biomarker for the development of severe COVID-19. We propose to implement routine screening of hospitalized COVID-19 patients for rapid identification of patients with IFN-AABs who most likely benefit from specific therapies