Väärtused ja subjektiivne heaolu: individuaalsete ja kultuuriliste erinevuste, elu jooksul toimuvate muutuste ning enda ja teiste hinnangute kokkulangevuse uurimus

Väitekirja elektrooniline versioon ei sisalda publikatsioone.Väärtused juhivad ja õigustavad inimeste tegevust, peegeldades samal ajal kultuuri ideaale ja jagatud arusaamu sellest, mis on õige ja vale, hea või halb. Käesoleva väitekirja on eesmärgiks välja selgitada, kas ja kuivõrd kattuvad Shalom Schwartzi ja Ronald Ingleharti väärtusteooriad, ehk millised on nende poolt välja pakutud väärtusmõõtmete ühised ja unikaalsed omadused (Uurimus I ja II). Teiseks oluliseks teemaks, mida antud väitekiri käsitleb, on inimeste subjektiivne heaolu, mille all peetakse silmas inimeste hinnanguid oma õnnnelikkusele ja eluga rahulolule. Väitekirja eesmärk on siinkohal eristada vanuse, ajastu ja sünnikohordi mõju eluga rahulolu vanuselistes muutustes (Uurimus III), sooviga seletada eluga rahulolu ealisi muutusi erinevates kultuurides. Samuti käsitleb väitekiri enda ja teiste hinnangute kokkulangevust nii subjektiivse heaolu (Uurimus IV) kui väärtuste puhul (Uurimus V), võttes sealjuures arvesse ka peamiste isiksuse seadumuste vahendava mõju. Väitekirja peamised tulemused ja järeldused on järgmised: • Shalom Schwartzi ja Ronald Ingleharti väärtusteooriad kattuvad suures osas vaid ühe kultuuritasandi väärtusmõõtme lõikes, mis väljendab ühiskondade individualistlikke ja kollektivistlikke püüdlusi (Uurimus I). Schwartzi ja Ingleharti väärtusdimensioonide aluseks olevate üksik¬küsimuste analüüs näitas, et selleks, et olla oma väärtushinnangutes auto¬noomne ja avatud, peavad indiviidid pidama oluliseks nii eneseväljendus¬likke kui ka ilmalik-ratsionaalseid väärtuseid, samas kui konservatiivsuse ja seotusega käib kaasas nii traditsionaalsete kui ellujäämist rõhutavate väärtuste oluliseks pidamine (Uurimus II). Ühtlasi leidsime, et nii Schwartzi kui Ingleharti väärtusmõõtmetel on teatav unikaalne sisu, mis¬tõttu oleks uurijatel mõistlik jätkata mõlema väärtusteooria kasu¬tamist. • Kas eluga rahulolu muutused eluea lõikes on kõikjal samasugused? Leidsime, et Soomes ja Rootsis ei sõltu inimeste eluga rahulolu kuigivõrd sellest, milline on nende vanus, samal ajal kui Eestis ja Lätis on eluga rahulolu kõver elukäigu jooksul kergelt U-kujuline (Uurimus III). Eluga rahulolu Eestis ja Lätis on kõrgeim noorte inimeste seas; kuni ligikaudu 60. eluaastani eluga rahulolu pidevalt langeb, jäädes seejärel püsima samale tasemele (Läti) või hakates vähesel määral taas tõusma (Eesti). Uurimus III tulemused näitavad, et eluga rahulolu vanuselised muutused kahes eelnimetatud Balti riigis on ennekõike tingitud sünnikohordi ja ajastu koosmõjust. Seega, universaalset eluga rahulolu trajektoori ei ole olemas – eluga rahulolu muutused inimeste eluea lõikes võivad eri riikides märkimisväärselt varieeruda, sõltudes olulistest kultuurilistest, poliitilistest ja sotsiaalmajanduslikest teguritest. • Uurimus IV käsitles enda ja teiste antud hinnangute kokkulangevust subjektiivse heaolu hindamisel. Tulemused näitasid, et nii enda kui teiste poolt antud hinnangud inimese isiksuse seadumustele (N3: Depressioon ja E6: Positiivsed emotsioonid) vahendavad osaliselt enda ja teiste hinnangute kokkulangevust subjektiivse heaolu puhul. Ehk siis viitavad Uurimus IV tulemused sellele, et hinnates kellegi teise õnnelikkust või eluga rahulolu, toetuvad inimesed hinnangute andmisel vähemasti osaliselt hinnatava inimese isiksuse seadumustele. Samuti leidsime, et see enesekohased subjektiivse heaolu hinnangud võivad teatud määral peegeldada seda, kuidas teised inimesed antud inimese isiksust näevad ja hindavad. • Lõpetuseks, Uurimus V võrdles enda ja teise hinnangute kokkulangevust väärtuste ja Suure Viisiku isiksuse seadumuste puhul. Tulemused näita¬sid, et kui võtta arvesse mõõtmisviga, on enda ja teiste hinnangute kokku¬langevus väärtuste puhul isiksuse seadumustega võrreldaval tasemel. Seega võib Uurimus V tulemuste põhjal väita, et inimesed suudavad teiste inimeste väärtusi küllaltki täpselt hinnata, mistõttu saab teiste poolt antud hinnanguid edukalt kasutada enesekohaste väärtushinnangute valideerimiseks ja täiendamiseks.Values are beliefs that guide and justify people’s actions, while also reflecting cultural ideals and a shared understanding of what is right and wrong, good or bad in a society. Aim of this thesis is to find out whether and to what extent two widely used value theories – those of Shalom Schwartz and Ronald Inglehart – overlap and to identify their unique features (Studies I and II). Subjective well-being is another important concept used in this dissertation. It refers to people's evaluations of their happiness and satisfaction with their life. The thesis aims to distinguish age, birth cohort, and period effects in changes of life satisfaction (Study III), in order to explain cultural differences in change across the life-span. I also assess the convergence between self- and other-ratings of subjective well-being (Study IV) and personal values (Study V), both examined in relation to personality traits. The main results of the thesis and the conclusions are as follows: • The value theories proposed by Shalom Schwartz and Ronald Inglehart share one dimension, which seems to coincide with what is best known as the opposition between individualism and collectivism (Study I). An analysis of the joint structure of Schwartz’s and Inglehart’s items (Study II) showed that in order to be autonomous, individuals need to have both self-expressive and secular-rational values, whereas being embedded means endorsing both traditional and survival values. I also found unique content of both Schwartz’s and Inglehart’s values not captured by the other respective theory, suggesting that researchers should continue to use them both. • Are there cross-cultural differences in life-span trajectories of life satisfaction? I found in Finland and Sweden that age does not seem to matter much for how satisfied people are. The relationship between age and life satisfaction in Estonia and Latvia was best described as curvilinear, with life satisfaction reaching its lowest level at around 51–60 years of age, then remaining at the same level (Latvia) or slightly increasing again (Estonia). At the same time, younger people were remarkably more satisfied than older people (Study III). The observed age differences in life satisfaction in the two Baltic countries seem to be best attributed to an interaction of cohort and period effects. Thus, a universal life satisfaction age trajectory may not exist; the relationship between age and life satisfaction is likely to vary along with important cultural, political, and socioeconomic factors. • Study IV reported a strong self-other agreement in subjective well-being (SWB). Self- and other-rated personality facet scores (N3: Depression and E6: Positive Emotions) were found to partially mediate the agreement between self- and other-rated SWB. The findings suggest that, when making judgments about someone’ happiness or life satisfaction, observers indeed rely on the personality traits of this person. Moreover, I found that self-reported SWB reflects, to some extent, what other people think about this person’s personality. • Finally, Study V compared the self-other agreement in personal values versus the Big Five personality traits. When corrected for attenuation due to measurement error, self-other agreement in both the higher-order values and more narrowly defined value factors was substantial and similar to that for the Big Five personality traits. The results of Study V suggest that people can judge others’ values with some accuracy and therefore other-ratings of personal values can be used to validate and complement self-report value measures

Cultural Value Differences, Value Stereotypes, and Diverging Identities in Intergroup Conflicts: The Estonian Example

An examination of the relationship between cultural values, value stereotypes and social identities in Estonia, where intergroup conflicts triggered riots in the capitalTallinn in April 2007, using data from the European Social Survey on cultural differences and value trends as the background to a survey exploring perceivedgroup values and assessed social identities among ethnic Estonians and members of the Russian-speaking minority. The study, conducted in summer 2008, foundagreement across both ethnic groups about the values of a typical group member, but no accuracy in their attribution. The Estonian students (n = 152) avoidedEastern-European identification, while the Russian-speaking students (n = 54) did not want to give up Estonia’s Soviet past. We found that attributed rather thanself-rated value differences between groups caused the conflicts, whilst diverging identities were found to make value stereotypes more extreme

Cross-Cultural Psychology and the Rise of Academic Capitalism : Linguistic Changes in CCR and JCCP Articles, 1970-2014

Recently, several studies have investigated developments in academic language over the last four decades: An analysis of a large number of PubMed abstracts by Vinkers, Tijdink, and Otte showed a dramatic rise in use of positive words such as “innovative,” “robust,” “novel,” and “unprecedented.” In the field of psychology, Pritschet, Powell, and Horne found an increase in mentions of marginally significant statistical findings, and social psychologist Michael Billig raised concerns about a surge of technical jargon in the social sciences. All these phenomena are believed to be a consequence of higher publication pressure and the need to become visible as a researcher in an increasingly competitive climate that is often referred to as academic capitalism. In our study, we tested the aforementioned indicators of linguistic change for a sample of 1,680 research articles from the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (JCCP) and 657 research articles from Cross-Cultural Research (CCR), published between 1970 and 2014. Overall, we found a consistent increase in positive framing, a rise in reports of marginally significant statistical findings, and indicators for growth in technical jargon. These findings suggest that self-marketing strategies are also on the rise in cross-cultural psychology.Peer reviewe

The relationship of trait-like compassion with epigenetic aging: The population-based prospective Young Finns Study

Introduction: Helping others within and beyond the family has been related to living a healthy and long life. Compassion is a prosocial personality trait characterized by concern for another person who is suffering and the motivation to help. The current study examines whether epigenetic aging is a potential biological mechanism that explains the link between prosociality and longevity. Methods: We used data from the Young Finns Study that follows six birth-cohorts from age 3–18 to 19–49. Trait-like compassion for others was measured with the Temperament and Character Inventory in the years 1997 and 2001. Epigenetic age acceleration and telomere length were measured with five DNA methylation (DNAm) indicators (DNAmAgeHorvath, IEAA_Hannum, EEAA_Hannum, DNAmPhenoAge, and DNAmTL) based on blood drawn in 2011. We controlled for sex, socioeconomic status in childhood and adulthood, and body-mass index. Results and discussion: An association between higher compassion in 1997 and a less accelerated DNAmPhenoAge, which builds on previous work on phenotypic aging, approached statistical significance in a sex-adjusted model (n = 1,030; b = −0.34; p = 0.050). Compassion in 1997 predicted less accelerated epigenetic aging over and above the control variables (n = 843; b = −0.47; p = 0.016). There was no relationship between compassion in 2001 (n = 1108/910) and any of the other four studied epigenetic aging indicators. High compassion for others might indeed influence whether an individual’s biological age is lower than their chronological age. The conducted robustness checks partially support this conclusion, yet cannot rule out that there might be a broader prosocial trait behind the findings. The observed associations are interesting but should be interpreted as weak requiring replication.Academy of Finland 286284 134309 126925 121584 124282 129378 117787 41071 322098Social Insurance Institution of FinlandCompetitive State Research Financing of the Expert Responsibility area of Kuopio, TampereCompetitive State Research Financing of the Expert Responsibility area of Kuopio, TampereJuho Vainio FoundationPaavo Nurmi FoundationFinnish Foundation for Cardiovascular ResearchFinnish Cultural Foundation Finnish IT center for scienceSigrid Juselius FoundationTampere Tuberculosis FoundationYrjoe Jahnsson FoundationEmil Aaltonen FoundationSigne and Ane Gyllenberg FoundationDiabetes Research Foundation of the Finnish Diabetes AssociationEuropean CommissionEuropean Research Council (ERC) European CommissionTampere University Hospital Supporting FoundationFinnish Society of Clinical Chemistry 755320 848146 74292

Does Contextual Change Affect Basic Human Values? : A Dynamic Comparative Multilevel Analysis Across 32 European Countries

This article examines the relationship of stable contextual differences and contextual change with the endorsement of Schwartz’s (1992) two basic value dimensions—Openness-to-Change versus Conservation and Self-Enhancement versus Self-Transcendence. Using six waves of the European Social Survey, an extension of multilevel analysis is used which combines both a cross-national comparative and a dynamic analysis of values. The hierarchical data structure and the covariates for value endorsement are defined at three distinct levels: a first level for individuals (with sociodemographic variables, such as age and gender), a second level for country-waves (with time-varying covariates), and a third level for country (with time-invariant covariates). The main aim is to determine if changes in contextual covariates over time are related to value differences between countries over and above contextual time-invariant covariates. High national wealth and low income inequality predicted high Self-Transcendence values and low Conservation values. Low national unemployment rates were associated with less conservatism. When entered simultaneously into the model, only time-invariant differences in gross domestic product (GDP) remained to be a significant predictor of Schwartz’s two basic value dimensions. Finally, we found that an increase in income inequality over time has a certain incremental effect on the endorsement of Conservation over Openness-to-Change values. There were no associations for changes in national wealth and unemployment rates, suggesting that for value endorsement, time-varying contextual effects are less important overall than time-invariant contextual effects.Peer reviewe

The relationship of socioeconomic status in childhood and adulthood with compassion : A study with a prospective 32-year follow-up

The objective of this study was to investigate (i) whether childhood family SES predicts offspring's compassion between ages 20-50 years and (ii) whether adulthood SES predicts compassion or vice versa. We used the prospective population-based Young Finns data (N = 637-2300). Childhood family SES was evaluated in 1980; participants' adulthood SES in 2001 and 2011; and compassion for others in 1997, 2001, and 2012. Compassion for others was evaluated with the Compassion scale of the Temperament and Character Inventory. The results showed that high childhood family SES (a composite score of educational level, occupational status, unemployment status, and level of income) predicted offspring's higher compassion between ages 30-40 years but not in early adulthood or middle age. These results were obtained independently of a variety of potential confounders (disruptive behavior in childhood; parental mental disorder; frequency of parental alcohol use and alcohol intoxication). Moreover, high compassion for others in adulthood (a composite score of educational level, occupational status, and unemployment status) predicted higher adulthood SES later in their life (after a 10-year follow-up), but not vice versa. In conclusion, favorable socioeconomic environment in childhood appears to have a positive effect on offspring's compassion in their middle adulthood. This effect may attenuate by middle age. High compassion for others seems to promote the achievement of higher SES in adulthood.Peer reviewe

Late start of upper secondary education and health-compromising behaviours among Finnish adolescents – a follow up-study

Background: The Finnish government has emphasized the need to expedite educational transitions. We study if a late start of upper secondary education is related to health-related selection, namely health-compromising behaviours in adolescence. Methods: A large cohort of adolescents from the seventh (12-13 years) and ninth (15-16 years) grades answered online classroom surveys (total n = 10 873). They were followed to the start of upper secondary education, obtained from the Joint Application Registry. We compared those who continued studies directly from the ninth grade with later starters. We measured late bedtime, breakfast not every school day, tooth brushing less than twice-a-day, monthly alcohol consumption, weekly smoking, daily energy drinks, physical activity <6 days/week and excessive screen time. Multilevel logistic regressions and latent class analyses were conducted. Results: In gender and school adjusted models in the seventh grade, all behaviours except physical activity predicted the late start. The strongest predictor was smoking, OR = 2.96 (CI = 2.25-3.89). In the ninth grade, smoking, breakfast, tooth brushing and energy drinks, OR = 1.80, (CI = 1.36-2.39, strongest), were predictive. After controlling for sociodemographic background and academic achievement, associations for alcohol and screen time became non-significant in the seventh grade. In the ninth grade, only screen time remained significant, OR = 1.33 (CI = 1.04-1.71). Health-compromising behaviours formed clusters. Belonging to the unhealthy cluster predicted the late start in both grades, in adjusted models only in the seventh grade. Conclusions: Students with health-compromising behaviours are less likely to start upper secondary education directly after the compulsory education. This may increase the risk for fragmentary educational trajectories and work careers.Peer reviewe

Functional Polymorphisms in Oxytocin and Dopamine Pathway Genes and the Development of Dispositional Compassion Over Time : The Young Finns Study

Background: We define compassion as an enduring disposition that centers upon empathetic concern for another person's suffering and the motivation to act to alleviate it. The contribution of specific candidate genes to the development of dispositional compassion for others is currently unknown. We examine candidate genes in the oxytocin and dopamine signaling pathways. Methods: In a 32-year follow-up of the Young Finns Study (N = 2,130, 44.0% men), we examined with multiple indicators latent growth curve modeling the molecular genetic underpinnings of dispositional compassion for others across the life span. We selected five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) whose functions are known in humans: rs2268498 (OXTR), rs3796863 (CD38) (related to lower oxytocin levels), rs1800497 (ANKK1/DRD2), rs4680 (COMT), and rs1611115 (DBH) (related to higher dopamine levels). Compassion was measured with Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory on three repeated observations spanning 15 years (1997-2012). Differences between gender were tested. Results: We did not find an effect of the five SNPs in oxytocin and dopamine pathway genes on the initial levels of dispositional compassion for others. Individuals who carry one or two copies of the T-allele of DBH rs1611115, however, tend to increase faster in compassion over time than those homozygotes for the C-allele, b = 0.063 (SE = 0.027; p = 0.018). This effect was largely driven by male participants, 0.206 (SE = 0.046; p <0.001), and was not significant in female participants when analyzed separately. Conclusions: Men who are known to have, on average, lower compassion than women seem to reduce this difference over time if they carry the T-allele of DBH rs1611115. The direction of the association indicates that dopamine signaling activity rather than overall dopamine levels might drive the development of compassion.Peer reviewe

Bidirectional Relationship of Sleep with Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties: A Five-year Follow-up of Finnish Adolescents

The long-term effects of sleep on adolescent psychosocial well-being are mostly unknown, although insufficient sleep has been associated with emotional and behavioral difficulties in cross-sectional studies. With a five-year follow-up of Finnish adolescents (Time 1: n = 8834; Mean age = 13 years, 51.1% female, Time 2: n = 5315, Mean age = 15 years, 51.6% female, Time 3: n = 3712; Mean age = 17 years; 50.2% female), the purpose of this longitudinal study was to investigate the relations between self-reported sleep duration, sleep problems, and emotional and behavioral difficulties during adolescence. Emotional and behavioral difficulties were assessed using The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) measuring emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity, peer problems and total difficulties. Sleep duration was calculated by counting the hours between self-reported bedtime and wake-up time. Sleep problems were assessed with a single question about the general sleep problems. According to the cross-lagged models for sleep and emotional and behavioral difficulties, the findings of this study indicate a developmental process during adolescence where, firstly, short sleep duration is a stronger predictor for current and prospective emotional and behavioral difficulties than vice versa. Secondly, increased emotional and behavioral difficulties expose adolescents to current and later sleep problems more strongly than reverse. Thus, the results show that short sleep duration predisposed to emotional and behavioral difficulties across adolescence, which then led to more prospective sleep problems. These findings suggest a developmental process where sleep and emotional and behavioral difficulties are intertwined in shaping adolescents' health.Peer reviewe

Oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) variant rs1042778 moderates the influence of family environment on changes in perceived social support over time

Background: Lack of social support is an established risk factor across health outcomes, making it important to examine its family environmental and genetic determinants. Methods: In a 27-year follow-up of the Young Finns Study (N = 2341), we examined with a latent growth curve model whether genes involved in the oxytocin signaling pathway namely, oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) variants rs1042778, rs2254298, and rs53576-moderate the effect of early-life social experiences on perceived social support across the life span. Mothers reported the emotional warmth and acceptance towards their children at baseline when the participants were from 3 to 18 years old (1980). Perceived family support and support from friends and peripheral sources were assessed in five follow-ups 18 years apart (1989-2007). Results: Maternal emotional warmth and acceptance predicted the initial level of perceived social support across subscales, while the rate of change in family support was affected by the family environment only if participants carried the T-allele of OXTR rsl 042778. This gene-environment interaction was not found for the rate of change in support from friends and peripheral sources and we also did not find associations between latent growth in perceived social support and OXTR variants rs53576 and rs2254298. Limitations: Selective attrition in perceived social support, maternal emotional warmth and acceptance, gender, and SES. Family environment was assessed by a non-standardized measure. Conclusions: OXTR rs1042778 polymorphism seems to contribute to changes in perceived family support in that way that some individuals (T-allele carriers) 'recover', to some extent, from the effects of early-life social experiences, whereas others (G/G genotype carriers) do not.Peer reviewe