Special Libraries, February 1944

Volume 35, Issue 2https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/sla_sl_1944/1001/thumbnail.jp

Tool-use experiments to determine the function of an incised ground stone artefact with potential symbolic significance

Ground stone implements are found across most Australian landscapes and are often regarded as Aboriginal tools that were used for processing or modifying other items such as plant foods, plant fibres, resins, bone points, pigments and ground-stone axes and knives. Less common are ground stones modified for non-utilitarian, symbolic purposes; for example, polished and carved stone ornaments; ritual implements such as cylcons and tjuringa sacred stones; and unused, well-crafted ground-stone axes. In this paper, we report on the function and potential significance of an unusual ground stone artefact from a site near Bannockburn, southwestern Australia. A set of regularly spaced, shallow grooves has been cut into the surface of each side of the stone. Use-wear, residues and experimental replica tools indicate that the grooves were probably made with a stone flake and then used to shape or sharpen wooden implements such as spear points or the edges of boomerangs or other weapons. The microscopic wear outside the grooves indicates contact with soft wood or other plant material, possibly a soft plant fibre bag. We suggest that the Bannockburn artefact primarily functioned as a woodworking tool, but the even spacing of the incisions suggests that they were intentionally placed, perhaps to convey a special meaning, perhaps as a tally system or other form of communication

Tool-use experiments to determine the function of an incised ground stone artefact with potential symbolic significance

Ground stone implements are found across most Australian landscapes and are often regarded as Aboriginal tools that were used for processing or modifying other items such as plant foods, plant fibres, resins, bone points, pigments and ground-stone axes and knives. Less common are ground stones modified for non-utilitarian, symbolic purposes; for example, polished and carved stone ornaments; ritual implements such as cylcons and tjuringa sacred stones; and unused, well-crafted ground-stone axes. In this paper, we report on the function and potential significance of an unusual ground stone artefact from a site near Bannockburn, southwestern Australia. A set of regularly spaced, shallow grooves has been cut into the surface of each side of the stone. Use-wear, residues and experimental replica tools indicate that the grooves were probably made with a stone flake and then used to shape or sharpen wooden implements such as spear points or the edges of boomerangs or other weapons. The microscopic wear outside the grooves indicates contact with soft wood or other plant material, possibly a soft plant fibre bag. We suggest that the Bannockburn artefact primarily functioned as a woodworking tool, but the even spacing of the incisions suggests that they were intentionally placed, perhaps to convey a special meaning, perhaps as a tally system or other form of communication

Development and application of a comprehensive analytical workflow for the quantification of non-volatile low molecular weight lipids on archaeological stone tools

Source determination of use-related residues on prehistoric stone tools is especially challenging, due to issues related to preservation, contamination and the contribution of residues from multiple sources. To increase confidence in this process, an analytical workflow was developed to include: (1) a sampling strategy that retains spatial information of the recovered residues and enables monitoring of environmental contamination; and (2) a sensitive and selective gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) procedure to quantify non-volatile low molecular weight lipids on stone artefacts. This workflow was applied to 14 stone artefacts excavated from deposits at Liang Bua, a limestone cave on the Indonesian island of Flores. These artefacts range in age between ∼14 000 and 1000 years old, and were preliminarily classified as either potentially showing traces of use (n = 7) or not (n = 7) using low magnification microscopy. Residues were sampled by direct solvent extraction off the surface of the artefacts. The aliquots were spiked with internal standards and derivatised. The trimethylsilyl derivatives of 40 saturated fatty acids, sterols, di- and tri-terpenoids and their analogues were quantified using optimised multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) transitions. Six of the potentially used artefacts contained sterols, phytosterols and terpenoids, either individually or in combination, whereas none of these compounds was commonly found on the seven artefacts preliminarily classified as unused. This suggests that these six artefacts may have been used as implements to process resources, and provides scope for further investigation. This workflow can also be adapted for the analysis of other archaeological objects

Combined organic biomarker and use-wear analyses of stone artefacts from Liang Bua, Flores, Indonesia

Organic biomarker and lithic use-wear analyses of archaeological implements manufactured and/or used by hominins in the past offers a means of assessing how prehistoric peoples utilised natural resources. Currently, most studies focus on one of these techniques, rather than using both in sequence. This study aims to assess the potential of combining both methods to analyse stone artefacts, using a set of 69 stones excavated from the cave site of Liang Bua (Flores, Indonesia). Prior to chemical analysis, an initial inspection of the artefacts revealed potential use-wear traces but no visible residues. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis, including the targeting of 86 lipids, terpenes, terpenoids, alkanes and their analogues, found compounds with plant or animal origin on 27 of the 69 stones. The artefacts were subsequently cleaned, and use-wear analysis identified traces of use on 43 artefacts. Use-wear analysis confirmed traces of use on 23 of the 27 artefacts with potential use-residues that were determined by GC-MS. The GC-MS results were broadly consistent with the functional classes identified in the later use-wear analysis. This inclusive approach for stone artefact analysis strengthens the identifications made through multiple lines of enquiry. There remain conflicts and uncertainties in specific cases, suggesting the need for further refinement and analyses of the relationships between use-wear and residues

What was ground?: a functional analysis of grinding stones from Madjedbebe and Lake Mungo, Australia

This thesis addresses the use of grinding stones and fragments in Australia through an integrated use-wear and residue analysis of tools from two early occupation sites: Madjedbebe (MJB; formerly known as Malakunanja II), in northern Australia, and Lake Mungo, in western New South Wales. Grinding stones are ubiquitous in Australia and are present in the some of the earliest human occupation sites of Sahul (the Pleistocene landmass comprising Australia and New Guinea), but our knowledge of grinding stones has been overshadowed by a general focus on flaked stone artefacts. Moreover, the function of grinding tools has mostly been inferred on the basis of morphology, and largely restricted to grass seed grinding, which is usually associated with deeply grooved, large sandstone dishes. Previous studies of grinding stones from the region have found little compelling evidence for seed grinding prior to the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary, in part because many grinding stones from Pleistocene contexts occur as fragments with no recurring form and no distinctive grinding grooves. Such tools are often referred to as “amorphous” grinding stones and their function is frequently assumed to be opportunistic, with little understanding of what materials were processed. However, functional analyses of Pleistocene grinding stones have rarely incorporated use-wear and residue analyses and therefore the function of these tools has remained relatively unexplored. Another issue associated with recognising Pleistocene grinding stones is that many are found on deflated and highly eroded surfaces and have been difficult to accurately provenance and date (for example, grinding stones recovered from Cuddie Springs and Lake Mungo). In this thesis, I report on a functional study of 91 grinding stones from MJB and 17 sandstone artefacts from Lake Mungo. Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and radiocarbon ages have suggested ages for these artefacts up to 45 ka for MJB and 14 – 25 ka for Lake Mungo. I analysed all specimens for diagnostic traces of use. My use-wear analysis involved the documentation of wear traces on the stone surface, as identified under multiple magnifications and lighting arrangements. The documented wear traces were compared with a use-wear reference library that was created with experimental and ethnographic grinding stones. Experimental specimens included 28 grinding tools made from one of five different sandstone materials used to grind and pound bone, wood, seeds, wheat, haematite and stone for varying amounts of time. The ethnographic tools included 12 arid zone upper stones (hand-stones) made of indurated sandstone and used for processing seeds. My residue analyses involved the removal of adhering material from the tool surface using one of two sampling methods: pipette extractions using multiple solvents, and ultra-sonication with distilled water. I examined removed material microscopically under transmitted light, and biological stains were applied to distinguish organic material. Non-visible residues and biomolecules were detected using a suite of biochemical tests to indicate the presence of fatty acids, proteins and carbohydrate compounds. Residue mixtures were further characterised with Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) to identify specific biomolecules and compared to modern reference material. The 91 grinding stones from MJB were collected during the 2012 field season. The recovered specimens were made from sandstone (n = 80), quartzite (n = 8), mudstone (n = 2) and volcanic stone (n = 1). These specimens were most frequently from one of three pulses of activity: Pulse 1 (182 – 209 cm below surface (bs)); Pulse 2 (113 – 150 cm bs) and Pulse 3 (10 – 36 cm bs). Unpublished radiocarbon ages produced on charred botanical remains and gastropod shell from the 1989 and 2012 excavations gave bracketing ages of 28.6 – 35.8 ka cal BP (Pulse 1), 9.2 – 18.2 ka cal BP (Pulse 2), and 4.2 – 5.5 ka cal BP (Pulse 3). Of the analysed specimens, 16 had traces consistent with the processing of pigments, 52 had evidence for the processing of plants (including starchy plants and seeds) and four had evidence for the processing of animal tissue. Eleven specimens had traces that indicated the processing of multiple resources. Plant processing tools were identified in all three Pulses, but pigment processing tools were restricted to early Holocene and Pleistocene deposits. The artefacts analysed from Lake Mungo included 17 sandstone pieces from the central part of the Mungo lunette during 2009 – 2011. A suite of OSL ages has provided bracketing age estimates for the stratigraphic units in which the artefacts were recovered. Ten artefacts are attributed to Unit E (~25 – 14 ka), and four artefacts are attributed to Unit F (~8 ka). Three artefacts from the Golgol lag were of unknown age. Use-wear indicates a likely seed grinding function for 14 of the artefacts. Use-related residues include starch, cellulose and other plant tissues. Grinding stones are an important artefact class that appear to retain residues at least as commonly as flaked stone, and perhaps in greater abundance on the typically more porous surfaces. I argue that grinding stones provide a unique and vast bank of past resource-use that is only beginning to be fully exploited by archaeologists. The results of this study have provided confirmation of Pleistocene plant processing and seed grinding activities in Sahul, and have indicated a range of other on-site activities that fluctuate in importance through time. The results also indicate the value of employing an integrated approach to functional analysis that includes the examination of stone tool morphology and use-wear together with a forensic study of residues, including morphological, biochemical and other molecular approaches. The determination of what was ground on stone provides a vast, mostly unexplored data bank with which we can evaluate and assess hypotheses based on other sources of evidence, such as flaked stones. Since grinding technology (like flaked stone technologies) spans most of human history, details of what was ground are likely to provide new insights into understanding behavioural adaptations associated with archaic and modern human evolution. Such insights may include the response of human populations to changing environmental conditions, landscapes and risk, as well as the cultural practices and the use of symbolic expressions

Extending the chronology for Blombos Cave, South Africa: Further evidence for the origins of modern human behaviour

Behavioural modernity, however defined, is considered to be the key distinctive feature separating Homo sapiens from earlier hominid lineages. While the fossil and genetic records imply that modern human morphology evolved in Africa between 250 and 150 thousand years (ka) ago, there is currently no unification regarding the timing or geographical origins of modern human behaviour (MHB). An increasing body of evidence suggests modern behaviour was present during the African Middle Stone Age (MSA). Defining the origins of MHB requires accurate and precise chronologies of when they first emerged. Blombos Cave in South Africa has yielded a collection of well-preserved cultural material from within the MSA layers. These include bone tools, shell beads, engraved ochre slabs and an assemblage of stone artefacts which are believed to represent a dynamic tool industry, the Still Bay (SB). More recently, ochre containers which may contain evidence for the ingredients used to produce paint, have been found in the lower layers of the cave, along with a tool kit, such as bone spatulas, that suggest an even earlier origin of MHB. The likely symbolic significance of these artefacts implies cognitive sophistication of MSA hominids and modern human behaviour previously only asserted in LSA people. Examination of both sediments and anthropogenic deposits within the MSA levels have allowed the MSA layers of Blombos Cave to be subdivided into separate phases and layers. Each of these has been systematically dated in this study using optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating techniques. The improved temporal resolution of this site contributes to the debates regarding the key mechanisms behind the emergence of MHB. Two leading theories regarding the emergence of MHB include: 1) environmental change, and 2) demographic change. OSL ages of sediments associated with these MSA levels suggest the SB industry occurred between 70 and 80 ka ago, with the other symbolic behaviours being recognised at ~110 ka. Such ages imply that MHB was present in southern Africa during the MSA and that it occurred sporadically, possibly as an outcome of increased human population and environmental conditions that were happening concurrently

Twelve thousand years of ritual practice

It is rare to formally identify ethnographically known rituals in the archaeological record that are more than a few hundred years old. David et al. report two buried miniature fireplaces from Cloggs Cave, southeastern Australia, that match the structure and contents of ethnographically known Australian Aboriginal rituals, which signals 500 generations of cultural tradition

Quandong stones: A specialised Australian nut-cracking tool

The quandong or native peach (Santalum acuminatum R.Br.) has been recognised as an important and tasty food resource among Aboriginal Australians in arid and semi-arid areas of southern Australia. It is valued for its fruit that is consumed raw or dried, and for its kernel, which is eaten raw or ground into paste for medicinal and skin care purposes. This paper reports on a study of ground stone implements within the Murray Darling Basin that has identified quandong stones as a distinct type of implement made specifically for the efficient cracking of quandong nuts. Data are presented on 1,327 ground stone implements from collections in 12 different locations in the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB), an area almost completely devoid of stone sources. Given the paucity of stone, multi-purpose use of implements is widely documented. Although it was common to find pits present in mortars and other ground stone tools demonstrating multiple functions, including use as anvils, a class of single purpose stones with multiple pits and distinctive form was identified. Most of these were found in areas known for groves of quandong and four were analysed for use-wear and residues along with two other ground stone items from the MDB. The results support their identification as specialised anvil stones for cracking quandong nuts

Movement of lithics by trampling: an experiment in the Madjedbebe sediments, northern Australia

Understanding post-depositional movement of artefacts is vital to making reliable claims about the formation of archaeological deposits. Human trampling has long been recognised as a contributor to post-depositional artefact displacement. We investigate the degree to which artefact form (shape-and-size) attributes can predict how an artefact is moved by trampling. We use the Zingg classification system to describe artefact form. Our trampling substrate is the recently excavated archaeological deposits from Madjedbebe, northern Australia. Madjedbebe is an important site because it contains early evidence of human activity in Australia. The age of artefacts at Madjedbebe is contentious because of the possibility of artefacts moving due to trampling. We trampled artefacts in Madjedbebe sediments and measured their displacement, as well as modelling the movement of artefacts by computer simulation. Artefact elongation is a significant predictor of horizontal distance moved by trampling, and length, width, thickness and volume are significant predictors of the vertical distance. The explanatory power of these artefact variables is small, indicating that many other factors are also important in determining how an artefact moves during trampling. Our experiment indicates that trampling has not contributed to extensive downward displacement of artefacts at Madjedbebe