Dietary Protein Intake in Young Children in Selected Low-Income Countries Is Generally Adequate in Relation to Estimated Requirements for Healthy Children, Except When Complementary Food Intake Is Low.

Background: Previous research indicates that young children in low-income countries (LICs) generally consume greater amounts of protein than published estimates of protein requirements, but this research did not account for protein quality based on the mix of amino acids and the digestibility of ingested protein.Objective: Our objective was to estimate the prevalence of inadequate protein and amino acid intake by young children in LICs, accounting for protein quality.Methods: Seven data sets with information on dietary intake for children (6-35 mo of age) from 6 LICs (Peru, Guatemala, Ecuador, Bangladesh, Uganda, and Zambia) were reanalyzed to estimate protein and amino acid intake and assess adequacy. The protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score of each child's diet was calculated and multiplied by the original (crude) protein intake to obtain an estimate of available protein intake. Distributions of usual intake were obtained to estimate the prevalence of inadequate protein and amino acid intake for each cohort according to Estimated Average Requirements.Results: The prevalence of inadequate protein intake was highest in breastfeeding children aged 6-8 mo: 24% of Bangladeshi and 16% of Peruvian children. With the exception of Bangladesh, the prevalence of inadequate available protein intake decreased by age 9-12 mo and was very low in all sites (0-2%) after 12 mo of age. Inadequate protein intake in children <12 mo of age was due primarily to low energy intake from complementary foods, not inadequate protein density.Conclusions: Overall, most children consumed protein amounts greater than requirements, except for the younger breastfeeding children, who were consuming low amounts of complementary foods. These findings reinforce previous evidence that dietary protein is not generally limiting for children in LICs compared with estimated requirements for healthy children, even after accounting for protein quality. However, unmeasured effects of infection and intestinal dysfunction on the children's protein requirements could modify this conclusion

Effects of protein or amino-acid supplementation on the physical growth of young children in low-income countries.

Child growth stunting is common in low-income countries, possibly due to insufficient protein intakes. Most previous studies have concluded that children's protein intakes are adequate in relation to estimated requirements, but these studies did not consider issues of protein digestibility and effects of infection on dietary protein utilization. Using an alternative approach to assess the possible role of protein inadequacy in children's growth restriction, the results of 18 intervention trials in which supplementary protein or amino acids were provided to children ages 6-35 months and growth outcomes were reviewed. Eight studies conducted in hospitalized children recovering from acute malnutrition found that the recommended protein intake levels for healthy children supported normal growth rates, but higher intakes were needed for accelerated rates of "catch-up" growth. Ten community-based studies did not demonstrate a consistent benefit of supplemental protein on children's growth. However, weaknesses in the study designs limit the conclusions that can be drawn from these studies, and additional appropriately designed trials are needed to answer this question definitively. Recommendations for optimizing future study designs are provided herein

Modularity in support of design for re-use

We explore the structuring principle of modularity with the objective of analysing its current ability to meet the requirements of a 're-use' centred approach to design. We aim to highlight the correlation's between modular design and 're-use', and argue that it has the potential to aid the little-supported process of 'design-for-re-use'. In fulfilment of this objective we not only identify the requirements of 'design-for-re-use', but also propose how modular design principles can be extended to support 'design-for-re-use'

Re-using knowledge : why, what and where

Previously the 're-use' focus has centred on specific and/or standard parts, more recently however, [standard components] are being developed...to enable both the re-use of the part and the experience associated with that part'. This notion is further extended by Finger who states that 'designers may re-use a prior design in it's entirety,...may re-use an existing shape for a different function, or may re-use a feature from another design'. Reinforcing this notion we currently consider re-use to reflect the utilisation of any knowledge gained from a design activity and not just past designs of artefacts. Our research concerns the improvement of formal 're-use' support and as such we have identified a need to gain a better understanding of how design knowledge can be utilised to support 're-use'. Thus, we discuss the requirements of successful 're-use' and attempt to ascertain within this skeleton: what knowledge can be re-used; how to maximise its' applicability; and where and when it can be utilised in new design

Intelligent design guidance

This paper presents results from an investigation regarding the use of the Design Structure Matrix (DSM) as a means to guide a designer through the calculation of numerical relationships within the early design system Designer. Characteristics, relationships and goals are used within Designer to enable the evaluation and approximation of the design model and are represented within the system as a digraph. Despite being a useful representation of the interactions within the design model, the digraph does not aid the designer in identifying a sequence of activities that need to be performed in order to evaluate the model. The DSM system was used to represent the characteristics and the dependencies obtained through the relationships. The sequence of characteristics within the DSM was optimised and used to produce a design process to guide the designer in model evaluation. The objective of the optimisation was to minimise the amount of iteration within the design process. The process enabled a designer who is unfamiliar with the model to evaluate it and satisfy the design goals and requirements. Both the DSM system and the Designer system are generic in nature andmay be applied to any design problem

An estimate of the uptake of atmospheric methyl bromide by agricultural soils

Published estimates of removal of atmospheric methyl bromide (CH3Br) by agricultural soils are 2.7 Gg yr−1 (Gg = 109 g) [Shorter et al., 1995] and 65.8 Gg yr−1 [Serça et al., 1998]. The Serça et al. estimate, if correct, would suggest that the current value for total removal of atmospheric CH3Br by all sinks of 206 Gg yr−1 (based on Shorter et al., 1995) would be 30% too low. We have calculated a new rate of global agricultural soil uptake of atmospheric CH3Br from a larger sampling of cultivated soils collected from 40 sites located in the United States, Costa Rica, and Germany. First order reaction rates were measured during static laboratory incubations. These data were combined with uptake measurements we reported earlier based on field and laboratory experiments [Shorter et al. 1995]. Tropical (10.2°–10.4°N) and northern (45°–61°N) soils averaged lower reaction rate constants than temperate soils probably due to differing physical and chemical characteristics as well as microbial populations. Our revised global estimate for the uptake of ambient CH3Br by cultivated soils is 7.47±0.63 Gg yr−1, almost three times the value that we reported in 1995

Immunopathological characterisation of infectious diseases of the koala and the platypus

This study characterised the pathological and immunopathological features of selected infectious diseases in the koala and the platypus. Originally, lymphosarcoma, cryptococcosis and chlamydiosis in the koala were chosen. Lymphosarcoma was included because of the putative retroviral involvement. Another infectious disease of Australian wildlife, mucormycosis of the platypus, was also included in the study. One hundred and ten koalas were necropsied throughout the study to determine the main cause of death, other pathological conditions present and to provide a source of case material. Fifty-six koala lymphoid neoplasia cases were obtained and the clinical features and clinical pathology were described. Cases were classified according to the tissues affected and the morphology of the neoplastic cells. The technique of immunohistochemistry was successfully applied to immunophenotype koala lymphoid neoplasms. Approximately half the cases were of the T cell immunophenotype, one quarter of B cell immunophenotype and one quarter did not stain. Multiple organ involvement and/or lymphoid leukaemia were common, probably reflecting presentation of koalas at advanced stages of disease. In order to improve understanding of the dynamics of progression from asymptomatic carriage of Cryptococcus neoformans to cryptococcosis, a preliminary study was undertaken to determine the prevalence, extent, biotype and seasonality of nasal and skin colonisation in the koala by Cryptococcus neoformans. Over a 22-month period, sequential nasal and skin swabs were obtained from 52 healthy captive koalas from the Sydney region. Prevalence of nasal colonisation varied seasonally from 12 to 38%. Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii was cultured from 37, var. neoformans from 22 and both varieties from 5 nasal swabs. One case of cryptococcosis in a captive koala was diagnosed, and the treatment and response to therapy was described. The applicability of a streptavidin biotin-horseradish peroxidase immunohistological staining method to determine the variety and serotype of Cryptococcus neoformans in histological sections of infected koala tissues was assessed. A preliminary study was undertaken to assess the proliferative responses of koala lymphocytes to various mitogens and to chlamydial and cryptococcal antigen in infected and non-infected koalas. The proliferative response of cultured koala lymphocytes varied with the individual animal, the mitogen or antigen used and its concentration, but were invariably greater with separated peripheral blood mononuclear cells than with whole blood. Prior to investigating the immunopathogenesis of mucormycosis in the platypus, the use of various immunomarkers was validated using normal platypus lymphoid tissue. The gross structure and histology of lymphoid tissues obtained from 15 platypuses was described; including spleen, thymus, lymphoid nodules, gut-associated lymphoid tissue and bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue. With the exception of lymphoid nodules, the lymphoid tissue of the platypus was comparable in histological structure to that of therian mammals. Cross-reactive and specific antiplatypus antibodies were successfully applied to histological sections of platypus lymphoid tissue. The immunohistological appearance of the lymphoid tissues in the platypus was similar to that of eutherian and metatherian mammals, except for the detection of fewer B lymphocytes. In order to improve understanding of the pathogenesis of Mucor amphibiorum infection in the platypus, the gross, histological and immunohistological features of cutaneous lesions from 14 platypuses were described. For comparative purposes, normal platypus skin was also examined histologically and immunohistologically. Cases of mucormycosis were confirmed by cytology, histology, mycology and/or ELISA. Skin lesions varied in size, and ranged from raised red nodules or plaques, to ulcerated lesions. Lesions could be either granulomatous or pyogranulomatous, and were commonly diffuse. T cells were the predominant infiltrating lymphoid cell in the lesions and few B cells were observed in all cases. Presumptive plasma cells were observed in about half the cases

Predictable text with primary age children in a Title One reading program

Readers create meaning in print through the process of prediction. Prediction and comprehension are intricately tied together. Reading predictable books helps young readers comprehend text because their expectations are repeatedly confirmed. Predictable text brings children naturally into the reading process and allows them to process print much as mature readers. When predictable text is implemented into a Title One reading program, students can more successfully interact with text. This sense of achievement motivates them to become actively engaged in reading experiences. As a result, students became better readers because they are reading more. Also, they became improved writers because the writing and reading processes have many common tasks