Population genetics of the main population of brown bears in southwest Asia

Genetic studies of the Eurasian brown bear (Ursus arctos) have so far focused on populations from Europe and North America, although the largest distribution area of brown bears is in Asia. In this study, we reveal population genetic parameters for the brown bear population inhabiting the Grand Kaçkar Mountains (GKM) in the north east of Turkey, western Lesser Caucasus. Using both hair (N = 147) and tissue samples (N = 7) collected between 2008 and 2014, we found substantial levels of genetic variation (10 microsatellite loci). Bear samples (hair) taken from rubbing trees worked better for genotyping than those from power poles, regardless of the year collected. Genotyping also revealed that bears moved between habitat patches, despite ongoing massive habitat alterations and the creation of large water reservoirs. This population has the potential to serve as a genetic reserve for future reintroductions in the Middle East. Due to the importance of the GKM population for on-going and future conservation actions, the impacts of habitat alterations in the region ought to be minimized; e.g., by establishing green bridges or corridors over reservoirs and major roads to maintain habitat connectivity and gene flow among populations in the Lesser Caucasus

Mitogenome Phylogeny Including Data from Additional Subspecies Provides New Insights into the Historical Biogeography of the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx.

Previous molecular studies of the wide-ranging Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx focused mainly on its northern Palearctic populations, with the consequence that the reconstruction of this species' evolutionary history did not include genetic variation present in its southern Palearctic distribution. We sampled a previously not considered Asian subspecies (L. l. dinniki), added published data from another Asian subspecies (L. l. isabellinus), and reassessed the Eurasian lynx mtDNA phylogeny along with previously published data from northern Palearctic populations. Our mitogenome-based analyses revealed the existence of three major clades (A: Central Asia, B: SE Europe/SW Asia, C: Europe and Northern Asia) and at least five lineages, with diversification in Lynx lynx commencing at least 28kyr earlier than hitherto estimated. The subspecies L. l. isabellinus harbors the most basal matriline, consistent with the origin of Lynx lynx in this subspecies' current range. L. l. dinniki harbors the second most basal matriline, which is related to, and may be the source of, the mtDNA diversity of the critically endangered Balkan lynx L. l. balcanicus. Our results suggest that the Anatolian peninsula was a glacial refugium for Eurasian lynx, with previously unconsidered implications for the colonization of Europe by this species

Human–Bear Conflicts at the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century: Patterns, Determinants, and Mitigation Measures

Edited by Vincenzo Penteriani and Mario Melletti.-- Part III - Human–Bear Coexistence.-- This material has been published in "Bears of the World. Ecology, Conservation and Management" by / edited by Vincenzo Penteriani and Mario Melletti / Cambridge University Press. This version is free to view and download for personal use only. Not for re-distribution, re-sale or use in derivative works.Conflicts between humans and bears have occurred since prehistory. Through time, the catalogue of human–bear conflicts (HBC) has been changing depending on the values and needs of human societies and their interactions with bears. Even today, conflict situations vary among the eight species of bears and geographically across these species’ ranges. This results in a broad range of interactions between bears and humans that may be considered as conflicts, including: (1) predation of domestic or semiwild animals, including bees, hunting dogs, and pet animals; (2) damage due to foraging on cultivated berries, fruits, agricultural products, and the tree bark in forest plantations; (3) economic loss due to destruction of beehives, fences, silos, houses, and other human property; (4) bear attacks on humans causing mild or fatal trauma; (5) bluff charges, bear intrusions into residential areas; and (6) vehicle collisions with bears and traffic accidents. In this chapter we aim to outline the principal types of HBC and geographical differences in the occurrence of conflicts and the coexistence between people and bears

The relationship between energy consumption and economic growth: time series analysis for Turkey 1972-2017

Yapmış olduğumuz bu çalışmada ülkemizdeki enerji kaynaklarıyla iktisadi büyüme arasındaki ilişki zaman serisi kullanılarak araştırılmaya çalışılmıştır. Analizde, serilerin durağanlıkları için Genişletilmiş Dickey-Fuller (ADF) birim kök testi, serilerin uzun dönem ilişkileri için Engle-Granger eş-bütünleşme testi, kısa dönem ilişkileri için Hata Düzeltme Mekanizması ve seriler arasındaki nedensellik ilişkisi için Granger nedensellik testi kullanılmıştır. Ekonometrik analizler, enerji tüketimindeki artışın sadece kısa dönemde ekonomik büyümeden pozitif şekilde etkilendiğini göstermektedir. Uzun dönemde ise enerji tüketimi büyüme haricindeki diğer faktörler ile ilişkilidir. Bununla birlikte Granger nedensellik test sonuçları; enerji tüketimi ile iktisadi büyüme arasında, enerji tüketiminden ekonomik büyümeye doğru tek yönlü bir nedensellik ilişkisinin olduğunu gözler önüne sermektedir.The interaction between energy consumption and economic growth in Turkey is investigated in this study by using a time-series analysis. In the analysis, it is used the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) unit root test for stationarity of series, Engle-Granger Cointegration test for long-run relationships of series, Error Correction Mechanism for short-run relationships and Granger Causality Test for the Causality Relationship between series. The econometric analysis shows that the increase in energy consumption is positively influenced by economic growth only in the short run. Long run energy consumption is related to factors other than growth. However, the results of Granger Causality Test reveal that there is a unidirectional causality relationship between energy consumption and economic growth, from energy consumption to economic growth

Litter size and basic diet of brown bears (Ursus arctos, Carnivora) in northeastern Turkey

Ambarli, Huseyin/0000-0003-4336-9417WOS: 000372020000014Brown bears (Ursus arctos) are the largest among terrestrial mammals and are at the center of most human-wildlife conflicts, but there has been little ecological research on the species in Turkey. The aim of this study was to document the litter size and diet of brown bears in the province of Artvin. Observations of brown bears were conducted from 2004 to 2012, with a total observation time of 588 h. A total of 72 scats were collected and analyzed. Most bears (43.6%) were spotted during the mating season in late May and early June. The average litter size was 1.67 (n = 39), and the average number of yearlings was 1.19 (n = 27). The average survival of cubs-of-the-year to the succeeding year was 0.71. The bears' diet consisted mainly of herbaceous plants (87.5%). The average litter size observed was among the smallest, and the diet was among the most herbivorous documented in brown bear populations in the world. Monitoring and revealing the basic ecological parameters of the brown bears in Turkey may provide baseline data for the effective management and conservation of brown bear populations in southwest Asia.Wildlife Conservation Society; Lesser Caucasus GAP Analysis Project; Kackar Mountains Sustainable Forest Use and Conservation ProjectMinistry of Forestry & Water Affairs - TurkeyThis study was partially funded by Wildlife Conservation Society, Lesser Caucasus GAP Analysis Project, and Kackar Mountains Sustainable Forest Use and Conservation Project. This research was done under permit B.18.ICO.08.04/1173 by Artvin Province Governorship. I thank Dr. Can Bilgin for his support during the early stage of the study; my field collaborators Yasar Kusdili, Mevlut, Muhammed and Yasar Kose, Sitki Eraydin, Ozgur Alacam, and Mehmet Turan; and directors of the National Parks and Wildlife Department of Artvin during the study period. I would like to thank Dr. Bruce McLellan and two anonymous reviewers for their valuable suggestions on the previous version of the manuscript

Analysis of wolf-human conflicts: implications for damage mitigation measures

Ambarli, Huseyin/0000-0003-4336-9417WOS: 000488389900001The wolf (Canis lupus) is a keystone and damage-causing carnivore species around the world. Although the species is widespread in Asia, there is limited information on its ecology and interactions with the humans in this continent. This paper presents the conditions and consequences of wolf-human conflicts in Turkey between 2002 and 2017, based on data from 234 incidents compiled from the archive of national media and ISI Web of Science. Most conflicts (90.6%) were portrayed in a negative light in the news. Most incidents (64.1%) were related to domestic animals and attacks on humans (24.8%). Mostly sheep and goats were killed by wolves (79.3% attacks on domestic animals). The wolf depredation rates were significantly higher in open lands and relatively protected corrals. Attacks on livestock were likely to happen at night and those on people during the day. The presence of livestock guarding dogs did not significantly change the wolf depredation rate. There was no significant difference among years and preventive measures against the wolf damage on livestock. A total of 58 human-wolf encounters resulted in attacks on humans and caused 12 deaths and 107 injured people. Those incidents were significantly related to rabid wolves (63.8%). To prevent rabies transmission in canids and thus rabid wolf attacks, we recommend enclosing dump sites in rural areas and vaccination of canid species especially in eastern Turkey, where wild canids and feral dogs encounter more frequently. To develop effective mitigation measures, a database which will provide conflict data should be established, and further researches for effective precautions should be supported

Rural and Urban Students' Perceptions of and Attitudes toward Brown Bears in Turkey

Ambarli, Huseyin/0000-0003-4336-9417WOS: 000384940900010Many studies have examined adults' perceptions of and attitudes toward large carnivores to assess human-wildlife conflict and inform conservation strategies, but there have been few studies concerning children. I studied secondary school students' perceptions of and attitudes toward brown bears (Ursus arctos) and other large mammals in Turkey via a questionnaire survey. The questionnaire, consisting of 18 questions, was completed by 215 rural and 98 urban secondary school students. Both sets of students liked bears; they were also afraid of them and unsure about living with them in the future. While there were no gender differences in attitudes and perceptions, there were marked differences between urban and rural students. Urban students had less contact with nature, gained more of their knowledge about bears from documentaries, and had less positive attitudes toward bears. They were also more likely to be afraid of species not present in Turkey, for example, anaconda, while rural students were most afraid of wild boars. Factor analysis identified three important themes: familiarity with bears, conservation of bears, and experiencing conflict with bears, which explained 49.8% of the variance in attitudes toward bears. The most important factor for the development of negative attitudes toward bears was personal experience of human-bear conflict, suggesting that measures to reduce human-bear conflict in rural areas may help to sustain students' positive attitudes toward the conservation of bears.EU Youth Program of National Agency of Turkey [3.1-2005-072]; TUBITAKTurkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Arastirma Kurumu (TUBITAK) [2219]I thank the students and science teachers of Sarigol Secondary Schools and METU Secondary School and EKOCEV Youth Project team. This study was supported by EU Youth Program of National Agency of Turkey under Grant [3.1-2005-072], and TUBITAK 2219 Postdoctoral Grant while finalizing the manuscript. I am grateful to Dr. Didem Ambarli for her valuable help with preparing and applying the questionnaire. I express my special gratitude to Karen Noyce and two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions on an earlier version of this manuscript. I also thank Dr. Renee Worringer and Erasmus K. H. J. zu Ermgassen for proofreading the paper

Yusufelinde bozayıların (ursus arctos) uzamsal-zamansal ekolojisi, habitat kullanımı ve populasyon büyüklüğü.

Brown bear is the largest mammal in Turkey and its main distribution lies in the Black Sea and Eastern Anatolia Regions. Its basic ecology is almost unknown in Turkey, except for a limited number of studies. This study aims to determine the spatio-temporal ecology and habitat use of brown bears in the Kaçkar Mountains, and to estimate their population size in the Özgüven Valley and Yusufeli, both firsts for Turkey. The study area is primarily covered with conifer and oak stands, but sparse mixed shrubland occurs in the Mediterranean climate influenced lower parts. GPS-GSM telemetry on seven captured bears (5 males and 2 females) was the main field technique used in this study. Other methods include monitoring via camera trapping, visual direct observations, and counting cubs of the year. Bears were fitted with GPS-GSM collars and tracked for 3 to 603 days. Mean home range size (HRS) was calculated by 95% kernel and MCP estimators for three different samples sizes.95% MCP for all positions produced a home range size of 19.91 ± 8.89 sq. km. for females, and 130.68 ± 102.95 sq.km. for males. On average, males and females move at rates of 199 m/h and 129 m/h, respectively. Males hibernate around 140 days whereas females around 150 days and at lower elevations than males. According to camera trapping results, bears are generally active at twilight whereas activity data loggers produced disparate results for tracked bears. Resting patterns showed that bears may also rest at midnight. Estimated population density per 100 km2. is 24.50 ± 1.74 individual using the Fcub method and 23.85 ± 2.51 using the mark–resight method. Captured bears indicated nonrandom distribution on habitat use and selected productive croplands and shrublands than other types of vegetation. Brown bear HRS in the Kaçkars is smaller than reported from most countries. The large female-male HRS difference is probably due to polygamous mating system, sexual dimorphism, hard mast availability, high population density, and female’s habitat exclusivity as a result of high tolerance by the local people in contrast with most northern countries. Although primary productivity is used to explain high population density and small HRS in other countries, the low productivity in the study area cannot explain the observed density and HRS difference. These findings will construct a scientific basis for brown bear management and conservation in Turkey.Ph.D. - Doctoral Progra

İnsan-ayı çatışmasının Artvin Yusufeli'nde analizi, Türkiye.

Increasing levels of conflict between brown bears and rural people have been reported for Yusufeli (Artvin, Turkey). This study aimed to document the conflict, understand human attitudes and responses, determine local habitat use and daily activity patterns of bears, and evaluate available damage prevention techniques. The study was conducted within landscapes at different scales, ranging from a core area defined by a large valley system to the whole of Artvin Province. Data on close encounters, injuries and damages caused were collected through government records, published literature and open-ended interviews with the locals. Bear presence and activity were monitored through various techniques, including the capture and radio-collaring of one individual. Population density was found to range between 11-27 adult bears/100 km2. Bear activity increased during hyperphagia, with many daytime observations. Interviews (n=67) showed that almost all (95%) locals believed that bears have become more of a problem lately. Only 6% supported full protection while 38% conditionally accepted it. On more than two-thirds of close encounters, the bear and person(s) involved departed without any harm. Rare bear attacks on humans, usually provoked, sometimes caused non-fatal injuries. Several bears were found to be shot and killed within the study area in 2002-2005. Damages were mostly in late summer on field crops and orchards, and in spring on beehives. Precautions taken by villagers differed in effectiveness against bears. Bears caused a minimum of USÞ21,500 worth damages annually at Yusufeli County. Implementation of modern techniques of exclusion and scaring would reduce human-bear conflict in the region.M.S. - Master of Scienc

Assessing caracal-prey interactions by spatial and temporal analyses

Mengulluoglu, Deniz/0000-0001-5203-4147; Ambarli, Huseyin/0000-0003-4336-9417WOS: 000471730300001In this study, we assessed habitat preferences and temporal activity patterns of caracal (Caracal caracal) and several possible prey species in Koyceiz Wildlife Development Reserve, south-western Turkey. We investigated whether wild goat (Capra aegagrus) is indeed the main prey of caracal and if there is evidence for excessive caracal predation on this ungulate as previously stated by researchers, wildlife wardens and hunters. Results of this 2249 camera trap-day survey revealed a high habitat segregation between caracal and wild goat (Pianka's O=0.2) and very high overlap between caracal and other prey species such as brown hare (Lepus europaeus), field mice (Apodemus spp.), chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) (Pianka's O=0.8-1.0). Wild goats preferred steep slopes (Chesson's =0.85) and associated narrow valley bottoms, whereas caracals preferred high flatland forests (Chesson's =0.95). The overlap coefficients in temporal activity patterns of caracal and wild goat ((1)=0.50), and caracal and other prey species were moderate ((1)=0.40-0.59), and did not indicate strict predator-prey relationships based on temporal activities. The results of this study do not support a caracal diet based mainly on wild goat, due to their mostly spatial and partially temporal segregation. Other smaller prey species such as brown hare, rodents and chukar partridge can serve as better prey options due to their continuous presence in caracal habitat throughout the day and year.Wildlife Department of Ministry of Forestry and Water AffairsWe would thank Wildlife Department of Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs both in main directorate and in Koycegiz for their support throughout the camera trap survey and partial funding. Turkish Nature Conservation Centre and Wildlife Department of Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs provided the camera traps. We thank to J. Niedballa for preparation of Fig. 1 and R.F. Martins for language editing