Masculinities and gender-based violence in South Africa: a study of a masculinities-focused intervention programme

Thesis (DPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2017.ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa as a country experiences extremely high rates of violence and gender-based violence (GBV). A wide range of interventions have been implemented as a means to respond to these, including legislative changes from government, and women-focused reactive interventions which act as support for survivors of incidents of violence. However, these have had not a significant impact on reducing levels of GBV in the country, and this suggests that alternative methods need to be investigated. This research therefore focuses on a specific alternative – masculinities-focused interventions – in the hope of understanding how to improve the effect of these as a GBV reduction strategy. A review of the literature focusing on causes of GBV point to a number of different opinions, ranging from individual aspects (such as substance abuse, or witnessed or experienced abuse) to more societal-level aspects (such as culture, and strain theories). However, few of these focus on the fact that it is overwhelmingly men who perpetrate violence in all regions and cultures. I therefore argue that an important aspect to understand when looking at GBV is the impact of hegemonic masculinities on men. Certain versions of masculinity, such as hypermasculinities and those associated with the military, have a specific emphasis on violence as a means of achievement, and societies where these forms of masculinity are prevalent and praised are therefore likely to display high levels of GBV. The majority of GBV interventions in South Africa are reactive and survivor-focused. However, the literature suggests that these are not effective at reducing levels of GBV, resulting in attempts to focus specifically on men and masculinities in order to do so. While masculinities-focused interventions have a number of positive effects, little attention has thus far been paid to the way in which these effects are achieved. This research therefore aims to help understand how such interventions influence participants, and also those factors which motivate them to join and remain involved in the intervention, in order to contribute to the knowledge on how to improve these interventions in the future. These questions were investigated through participant observation of workshops, focus group discussions with workshop participants, and one-on-one interviews with workshop participants, facilitators and practitioners in the field of GBV. Four focus groups were conducted, and one-on-one interviews with seven workshop participants and nine workshop facilitators and practitioners. This study showed that the primary reason for participants joining is through a desire to be involved in community improvement, rather than a specific interest in GBV prevention. Supporting the notion that socialisation is heavily influenced by a person’s peers, the Stellenbosch aspects which were noted as having the biggest effect both during and after the intervention were the presence of a supportive peer group, and facilitators who acted as positive role models. These aspects motivated participants to want to shift their behaviour and become role models themselves. This study therefore highlights issues to consider in the improvement of GBV interventions as well as the implications for addressing GBV more broadly.AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: As ‘n land het Suid-Afrika besonder höe vlakke van geweld en geslagsgebaseerde geweld (GGG). ‘n Wye spectrum van ingrypings is al toegepas om hierdie verskynsels aan te pak, hierby ingesluit wetsveranderings van regeringskant, en vrou-georienteerde reaktiewe ingrypings wat ondersteuning verskaf aan die oorlewendes van GGG. Maar hierdie ingrypings het nie ‘n noemenswaardinge impak op GGG vlakke gehad nie, en dit wil voorkom asof alternatiewe middele ondersoek moet word. Hierdie navorsing fokus dan op ‘n spesifieke alternatief – manlikheids georienteerde ingrypings – met die doel om te verstaan hoe die impak van hierdie ingrypings as GGG verminderingstrategieë verbeter kan word. ‘n Oorsig van die literatuur aangaande die oorsake van GGG dui op ‘n aantal verskillende opinies, vanaf indiwiduele oorsake (soos dwelm misbruik, of waargenome of ervaarde mishandeling) na meer maatskaplike oorsake (soos kultuur en teorieë van spanning). Maar baie min van hierdie teorieë focus op die feit dat dit oorweldigend mans is wat verantwoordelik is vir hierdie geweld in alle gebiede en kulture. Ek argumenteer derhalwe dat ‘n belangrike aspek om in ag te neem met GGG is die impak van hegemoniese manlikhede op mans. Verskeie vorms van manlikheid, soos hipermanlikhede en daardie manlikhede wat met die militêr geassosieer word, het ‘n spesifieke fokus op geweld as prestasiemiddel, en samelewings waar hierdie vorms van manlikheid sterk voorkom en geprys word is derhalwe geneig om hoë vlakke van GGG te openbaar. Die meerderheid van GGG ingrypings in Suid-Afrika is reaktief en gefokus op die oorlewendes. Maar die literatuur wil voorgee dat hierdie ingrypings nie effektief is in die vermindering van GGG-vlakke nie, wat veroorsaak dat meer manlikhede-gefokuste ingrypings voorkom om hierdie doel te bereik. Terwyl manlikhede-gefokuste ingrypings ‘n aantal positiewe resultate vertoon, is daar tot dusver maar min aandag geskenk aan die maniere waarop hierdie resultate bereik word. Hierdie navorsing wil dan verstaan hoe sulke ingrypings deelnemers beinvloed, asook daardie faktore wat deelnemers motiveer om by die ingryping aan te sluit en betrokke te bly, met die doel om by te dra tot die kennis van hoe hierdie ingrypings in die toekoms verbeter kan word. Hierdie vrae is deur middel van deelnemed waarneming van werkswinkels, fogus groep besprekings met werkswinkel deelnemers, en aangesig-tot-aangesig onderhoude met werkswinkel deelnemers, bemiddelaars en GGG praktisyns, ondersoek. Vier fokus groepe, aangesig-tot-aangesig onderhoude met sewe werkswinkel deelnemers en nege werkswinkel bemiddelaars en prakisyns, is gevoer. Hierdie studie het bewys dat die vernaamste rede waarom deelnemers aansluit is ‘n begeerte om betrokke te raak in gemeenskapsverbetering, eerder as ‘n spesifieke belangstelling in die voorkoming van GGG. In ondersteuning van die gedagte dat sosialisering noemenswaardig beïnvloed word deur ‘n persoon se eweknieë, is die aspekte wat die grootste impak beide gedurende en na die ingryping gehad het die aanwesigheid van ‘n ondersteunende ewekniegroep, en bemiddelaars wat as positiewe rolmodelle opgetree het. Hierdie aspekte het deelnemers gemotiveer om hulle gedrag te verander, en dus om hulleself rolmodelle te word. Hierdie studie onderstreep dus belangrike aspekte in die verbetering van GGG ingrypings sowel as die implikasies vir GGG ingrypings in die algemeen gesien

Dependency theory and urbanisation in Southern Africa : a conceptual critique

Dissertation (D. Phil.) -- University of Stellenbosch, 1990.ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Marxist development theory has been in trouble recently. As it has been applied in Southern. Africa, this theoretical stream originated in the theories of Arrlre Gunder Frank and Imnanuel Wallerstein. From the critique against these theories, most notably by Ernesto Laclau and Robert Brenner, a new theoretical direction arose. This was called modes of production theory. However, today this theory is also in crisis as a result of EP Thampson' s withering attack on Althusser. Amid the debris of such old theories, same writers feel that Marxist development theory is at an impasse. New directions are being sought in Weber and various micro-theories. These writers are being unnecessarily pessimistic. New theories are already emerging from the ruins of the old, as one would expect them to. The central concern of this thesis, then, is the new direction in which Marxist development theory might move in order to go beyond its present dilemma's in its consideration of the Southern African context. There are three main elements necessary for viable renewal. All of these draw on Anthony Giddens' structuration theory. The first is a theory of the postcolonial or peripheral state which avoids instrumentalist and functionalist notions. These latter see the state as subjected to the interests of the ruling class or to the logic of capitalist development. But state incumbents in peripheral countries have distinct enough interests and anxieties, on the one hand, and sufficient resources, on the other hand, to make them a separate class with a significant measure of independence over and against both national and international bourgeoisies. The second innovation in Marxist development theory concerns the relationship between core and periphery. Core-periphery interaction is conceptually worth retaining on condition that it jettisons the stagnationist, quantitative, unidimensional and uninodal assumptions introduced by Frank and Wallerstein. Core and periphery thus interact at international, national, regional and intra-urban levels. Such levels are superimposed 'on to' each other and operate simultaneously. In addition, cores exercise their dominance over peripheries in multifarious ways which include both trade am class mechanisms. Exploitation is therefore not a quantative, zero-sum game, but a qualitative relational one. Finally, once one moves beyond neat notions of discrete systems each with a single core, it becomes possible to think of multiple systems, not only superimposed 'on top of' each other, but also existing 'next to' each other. The interaction between defies neat boundaries. The final innovation in Marxist development theory concerns the notion of structure. Earlier Marxist writers, following Althusser and Poulantzas, were strongly structuralist positivist. Later Marxists, particularly among social historians in South African, by contrast, have been influenced by subjectivist and relativist theories. Structuration theory rejects both of these polarities. Giddens proposes that social analysis must start with subjective meaning, as subjectivist theories would say. Unlike subjectivist theories, structure must be seen as constitutive of subjective meaning. At the epistemological level Giddens also rejects relativism. In this view a form of critical theory which applies to both the object and the subject of theory can replace vicious with virtuous cycles of knowledge.AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Marxistiese ontwikkelingsteorie was in die laaste tyd in die moeilikheid. Soos in Suider-Afrika toegepas, het hierdie teoretiese stroom sy oorsprong gevind in die werk van Andre Gunder Frank en Immanuel Wallerstein. uit die kritiek teen hulle teoriee, veral deur Ernesto Iaclau en Robert Brermer, het 'n nuwe teoretiese rigting ontstaan. Dit was modes van produksie teorie. Maar vandag is hierdie toerie ook in krisis as gevolg van EP Thompson se skryende aanval op Althusser. Tussen die oorblyfsels van sulke ou teoriee voel sommige sktywers dat Marxistiese ontwikkelilingsteorie in 'n doodloopstraat is. Nuwe rigtings word nou in Weber en verskeie mikro-teoriee gesoek. Hierdie skrywers is onnodiglik pessimisties. Nuwe teoriee is reeds besig om te verskyn uit die splinters van die oue, soos mens ook sou verwag. Die hooftema van hierdie proefskrif gaan dan oor die vernwings wat in Marxistiese ontwikkelingsteorie nodig is om in sy analise van die Suider-Afrika konteks sy huidige dilemma's vry te spring. Daar is drie hoofelemente nodig vir lewensvatbare vernuwing. Hulle kan almal uit Anthony Giddens se struktureringsteorie. Die eerste is 'n teorie van die na-koloniale of periferale staat wat instrumentalistiese en funksionalistiese idees vermy. Sulke idees sien die staat as onderworpe aan die belange van die heersersklas of aan die logika van die kapitalisties sisteem. Staatsakteurs in periferale lande het, aan die een kant, noemenswaardige belange en spanninge, en aan die ander kant, voldoende magsbrorme am van hulle 'n aparte klas te maak teenoor beide nasionale eninternasionale bourgeoisies. Die tweede vernuwing in Marxistiese ontwikkelingsteorie gaan oor die verhouding tussen kern en periferie. Kern-periferie interaksie kan as konsep behou word mits die stagnasionistiese, kwantitatiewe, eendimensionele en enkelkern idees van Frank en Wallerstein verwerp word. Kern en periferie is, naamlik, op internasionale, nasionale, streeks- en intrastedelike vlakke in interaksie. Sulke vlakke word 'op' mekaar geplaas en fungeer gelyktydig. Kerne oefen daarbewenens hulle dominasie oor periferie uit op verskeie maniere wat beide handels- en klassemeganismes insluit. Uitbuiting is derhalwe nie 'n kwantitatiewe, zero-somspel nie, maar 'n kwantitatiewe relasionele een. Iaastens, wanneer mens wegbeweeg van netjiese konsepte van aparte sisteme elk met 'n enkele kern, word dit moontlik om veelvoudige sisteme nie net 'bo op' mekaar geplaas, maar ook 'langs' mekaar te bedink. Die interaksie tussens sisteme pas nie binne netjies grense nie. Die laaste vernuwing in Marxistiese ontwikkelingsteorie gaan oor die idee van struktuur. vroeere Marxisties skrywers, in navolging van Althusser en Poulantzas, was sterk strukturalisties en positiwisties. Iatere Marxiste, veral onder sosiale historici, daarteenoor, is deur subjektiwistiese en relatiwistiese teoriee beinvloed. Struktureringsteorie verwerp albei hierdie polariteite. Giddens stel voor dat sosiale analise met subjektiewe betekenis moet begin, soos subjektiwistiese teoriee sou se. Maar, anders as in subjektiwistiese -teoriee, is subjektiewe betekenis en struktuur onderling konstituerend. Op die epistemologiese vlak verwerp Giddens ook die relatiwisme. Met 'n soort kritiese teorie wat beide op die objek van sosiale analise as op die sosiaalwetenskaplike self van toepassing is, kan, volgens hom, 'n bose met 'n deugsame kringloop van kennis vervang word. Sodoende kan probleme van relatiwisme vermy word