Design, fabrication and testing of sandwich panel decking use in road freight trailers

This paper investigates the potential of sandwich structures in the novel application of road freight trailer decking. Sandwich panels are developed to be lightweight replacements to conventional birch plywood hardwood decking, which is the norm in European road freight trailers. A tailored material selection process is used to identify the most advantageous sandwich panel material combinations with respect to flexural properties and material cost. Sandwich panels with woven glass fibre reinforced polyester and an end-grain balsa are found to be the most advantageous material combination in terms of both raw material cost and mechanical performance. These panels are fabricated using a single shot fabrication technique and are approximately 30% lighter than conventional birch plywood trailer decking. This weight saving corresponds to approximately 165 kg in a standard 13.6 m long European road freight trailer. Three point bend testing has shown that these sandwich panels have superior flexural strength and comparable flexural stiffness to birch plywood. Large panel testing confirmed that these panels can withstand roughly four times the forklift wheel load likely to be seen in-service. The shear properties of two grades of rigid end-grain balsa core are also studied to illustrate the importance of using a higher density balsa core. Practical considerations, such as joining and recyclability, for using sandwich panels in this application are also discussed.Centre for Sustainable Road Freight, Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (Grant ID: EP/K00915X/1

Reducing the energy consumption of heavy goods vehicles through the application of lightweight trailers: Fleet case studies

Reducing the empty weight of articulated heavy goods vehicle trailers is one avenue that needs to be explored in reducing the carbon footprint of the road freight industry as a whole. A statistical analysis of two heavy goods vehicle fleets operating in the United Kingdom has helped to identify double-deck trailers used in grocery haulage and 'walking-floor' trailers used in bulk haulage as two examples of trailers that can benefit significantly from lightweighting. Energy consumption of numerous articulated heavy goods vehicles is quantified through an idealised drive cycle analysis reflecting a long haul journey over a highway. This energy analysis allows for a mass energy performance index to be established. The analysis has shown that reducing the empty weight of trailers by 30% can cause reductions of up to 18% and 11% in mass energy performance index for double-deck trailers and 'walking-floor' trailers respectively. Using this approach, trailers that will benefit the most from weight reduction can be identified systematically, allowing for lightweighting strategies to be implemented more effectively. Strategies to reduce empty trailer weight and improve vehicle utilisation are also discussedThe authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from the members of the Centre for Sustainable Road Freight and from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (Grant Reference EP/K00915X/1).This is the final version of the article. It first appeared from Elsevier via http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2015.09.01

Common climatic signal from glaciers in the European Alps over the last 50 years

Conventional glacier-wide mass balances are commonly used to study the effect of climate forcing on glacier melt. Unfortunately, the glacier-wide mass balances are also influenced by the glacier's dynamic response. Investigations on the effects of climate forcing on glaciers can be largely improved by analyzing point mass balances. Using a statistical model, we have found that 52% of the year-to-year deviations in the point mass balances of six glaciers distributed across the entire European Alps can be attributed to a common variability. Point mass balance changes reveal remarkable regional consistencies reaching 80% for glaciers less than 10 km apart. Compared to the steady state conditions of the 1962–1982 period, the surface mass balance changes are −0.85 m water equivalent (w.e.) a⁻¹ for 1983–2002 and −1.63 m w.e. a⁻¹ for 2003–2013. This indicates a clear and regionally consistent acceleration of mass loss over recent decades over the entire European Alps

Geodetic reanalysis of annual glaciological mass balances (2001-2011) of Hintereisferner, Austria

This study presents a reanalysis of the glaciologically obtained annual glacier mass balances at Hintereisferner, Ötztal Alps, Austria, for the period 2001-2011. The reanalysis is accomplished through a comparison with geodetically derived mass changes, using annual high-resolution airborne laser scanning (ALS). The grid-based adjustments for the method-inherent differences are discussed along with associated uncertainties and discrepancies of the two methods of mass balance measurements. A statistical comparison of the two datasets shows no significant difference for seven annual, as well as the cumulative, mass changes over the 10-year record. Yet, the statistical view hides significant differences in the mass balance years 2002/03 (glaciological minus geodetic records=+0.92mw.e.), 2005/06 (+0.60mw.e.), and 2006/07 (-0.45mw.e.). We conclude that exceptional meteorological conditions can render the usual glaciological observational network inadequate. Furthermore, we consider that ALS data reliably reproduce the annual mass balance and can be seen as validation or calibration tools for the glaciological method.(VLID)3146447Version of recor

Mechanical behaviour of phenolic coated Finnish birch plywood with simulated service damage

This paper investigates the mechanical behaviour of Finnish birch ($\textit{Betula pendula}$ and $\textit{Betula pubescens}$) plywood commonly used in road freight trailer decking. A series of tests have been performed to characterize the mechanical performance of the material and the effect of in-service damage that is likely to occur when the material is used in this application. Moisture damage, indentation damage, and abrasive wear are all recreated in the laboratory and the severity of each is assessed. In particular, the effect of indentation damage on flexural properties is compared against the effect of moisture damage. It is found that while indentation damage can often appear more severe during a visual inspection, it generally has a lesser effect on flexural stiffness and strength compared to moisture damage. While the effect of moisture damage on flexural properties is well documented, the effect of indentation damage is previously less well understood. Both indentation damage and moisture damage significantly increase variance in flexural stiffness, but not flexural strength. This work provides a practical insight into whether damaged road freight trailer decking can still withstand in-service loadings. It also provides a benchmark for the performance of novel deck systems such as composite sandwich panels and glass-fibre pultrusions.Centre for Sustainable Road Freight; Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council [Grant ID: EP/K00915X/1

Novel method of producing in-plane fibre waviness defects in composite test coupons

The in-plane fibre waviness defects that can occur during tape laying of carbon fibre reinforced prepreg materials can have significant adverse effects on their resultant mechanical properties. Therefore, it is necessary to produce coupon test specimens containing such defects. A novel hot air gun and plastic rod pull-through method was developed to fabricate tension test coupon specimens with varying levels of in-plane fibre waviness defects using Hexcel M56/IM7 carbon fibre prepreg. Wave severities (defined as amplitude/wavelength) ranging from 0.040 to 0.066 were produced. Compared with control specimens without fibre waviness, the presence of in-plane wave defects reduced the ultimate tensile strength and tensile modulus by up to 52% and 30%, respectively. Increasing the severity of the wave defects typically decreased tensile performance. Failure of the specimens was observed to occur at the location of the wave defect

Thin-ply composite laminates: a review

Composite structures formed using thin-ply laminates are of interest to aerospace and other high-performance industries. This paper reviews recently published research into fibre reinforced polymer matrix composites formed using thin-ply (<100 μm thick) laminates. Due to their prominence in the literature, this review focuses on thin plies formed with carbon fibre tows. Research into the manufacture, microstructure, mechanical performance and implications for structural design are described. The benefits of thin plies compared with standard plies (~125 μm thick) are assessed, including flexibility in design, damage tolerance and potential for creating pseudo-ductile composite structures. Improvements to static and fatigue properties are discussed. The adverse effects of thin-ply polymer matrix composites are evaluated, including open-hole and notch sensitivity, as well as interlaminar fracture toughness. The underlying physical mechanisms responsible for the benefits and drawbacks of thin-ply composite laminates are described. One critical physical attribute of thin plies is found to be the relatively few number of fibres per ply, which allows for more variation in ply angle orientation compared with a laminate of the same thickness made with standard plies. Potential areas for further research are discussed, including processing techniques, joining, material hybrids, thermoplastics, durability, recyclability and applications to multifunctional composite structures

Material Selection and Structural Optimization for Lightweight Truck Trailer Design

This article investigates options for lightweighting truck trailers through a combination of material selection and structural optimization. Critical chassis design load cases were established and a parametric finite element (FE) model of a typical European-style 13.5 m long truck trailer built from steel I-beams was developed. The model has been used to show that existing longitudinal steel I-beams could be reduced in weight by 28% (140 kg) through shape optimization alone. The model was expanded to analyze holistic composite trailer structures. It showed that up to 67% (1,326 kg) of weight could be saved by executing shape and material optimization in unison. The approach highlights that design through parametric analysis allows for many different structural configurations to be assessed in terms of both mechanical performance and material cost. This facilitates the construction of a theoretical design space of a lightweight chassis, clarifying the weight reduction limits that could be achieved with lightweight materials and structural optimization. The lightweight trailer chassis designs proposed here are also compared against a portfolio of shorter-term strategies for trailer lightweighting. These strategies are poised to have an increasingly important role in reducing the greenhouse gas emissions of the road freight industry

Proposals of criteria for valorization of deposits and prognostic/perspective areas of hard coal for their protection

Ochrona złóż kopalin winna zapewniać ich dostępność dla zagospodarowania w przyszłości. Jest to szczególnie istotne w przypadku węgla kamiennego, który w Polsce jest surowcem strategicznym o dużym potencjale zasobowym, zarówno w złożach udokumentowanych (138 złóż, w tym 91 nie objętych eksploatacją), jak i w obszarach o zasobach prognostycznych i perspektywicznych (około 90 obszarów). W artykule przedstawiono kryteria oceny tych złóż i obszarów (z wyłączeniem złóż zagospodarowanych) pod kątem ich potencjalnej ochrony, w podziale na trzy podstawowe grupy: - geologiczno-zasobowe (proponowane 70-75% łącznej oceny punktowej); - formalne i przestrzenne warunkujące dostępność złoża (15-20% łącznej oceny); - środowiskowe (ok. 10% łącznej oceny). Wynikiem proponowanej przez autorów propozycji wielokryterialnej waloryzacji złóż i obszarów prognostycznych/perspektywicznych węgla kamiennego w Polsce, opartej na systemie punktacji, byłby podział tych złóż i obszarów na pięć grup, poczynając od złóż/obszarów w najwyższym stopniu predestynowanych do ochrony, a skończywszy na złożach/obszarach wyłączonych z potencjalnej ochrony.Mineral resources protection should assure their accessibility for future development. It is especially important in case of hard coal, which - in Poland - is a strategic raw material. There is a large hard coal resources potential in Poland, with 138 recognized deposits (including 91 undeveloped deposits), as well as ca. 90 prognostic and perspective areas. In the paper, valorization criteria of undeveloped deposits and prognostic/perspective areas of hard coal, are formulated, being divided into three groups: - geological and resource criteria - 70-75% of total point assessment; - formal and spatial criteria - 15-20% of total point assessment; - environmental criteria - ca. 10% of total point assessment. As a result of introduction of proposed multi-criteria valorization of hard coal deposits and prognostic/perspective areas, these objects would be classified into five categories, starting from category of objects of the highest protection, down to category of objects excluded from resource protection

Testing of pilot installation in Regulice for usability of tailings from selected coal mines in the production of mineral aggregates

Produkcja kruszyw z odpadów z górnictwa i przeróbki węgla kamiennego rozwijana na Górnym Śląsku stanowi istotną alternatywę dla kruszyw naturalnych, konkurując z nimi głównie pod względem ceny, przy spełnieniu podstawowych wymagań jakościowych. Uruchomiona pilotowa instalacja demonstracyjna do produkcji kruszyw z odpadów powęglowych w Laboratorium Akademii Górniczo-Hutniczej w Regulicach może być ważnym narzędziem umożliwiającym wstępne badanie odpadów powęglowych pod kątem produkcji kruszyw. W instalacji tej w 2013 r. poddano badaniom odpady gruboziarniste 20-150 mm ze wzbogacania węgla w separatorach cieczy ciężkiej, pochodzące z kopalń Katowickiego Holdingu Węglowego: „Wujek" i „Mysłowice-Wesoła" (Ruch „Wesoła"). Otrzymano mieszankę 4-31,5 mm oraz materiał drobnoziarnisty niskoenergetyczny 0-4 mm. Mieszanka 4-31,5 mm otrzymana na bazie odpadu z kopalni „Wujek" wykazała lepsze parametry jakościowe niż otrzymana na bazie odpadu z kopalni „Wesoła": odporność na rozdrabnianie w bębnie Los Angeles 29% (Wesoła - 34%), mrozoodporność 14,1% ubytku masy (Wesoła -17,2%), zawartość węgla 5,1% (Wesoła - 6,0%). Produkt drobnoziarnisty 0-4 mm niskoenergetyczny otrzymany na bazie odpadu z kopalni „Wesoła" wykazujący wartość opałową 9,4 MJ/kg przy niskiej zawartości siarki może okazać się przydatny do przygotowywania mieszanek paliwowych z miałem węglowym. Analogiczny produkt na bazie odpadu z kopalni „Wujek" jest pod tym względem mniej atrakcyjny.Production of minerał aggregates from coal mining and processing wastes developed in Upper Silesia is a significant alternative for natural aggregates, competing with them mainly on price, if basic quality requirements are achieved. From several years coal mines and research institutes are engaged in scientific research on development of aggregates production technology from mining wastes through modification of existing coal processing plants or separate mining wastes processing lines. The pilot installation, which was implemented in the framework of "MIN-NOVATION - Mining and Minerał Processing Waste Management lnnovation Network" can be an important facility enabling initial study on mining wastes as a source of minerał aggregates. The installation is located in the Central Laboratory of Blasting Techniques and Explosives in Regulice and belongs to the Faculty of Mining and Geoengineering at the AGH University of Science and Technology. In 2013 the pilot installation tested the coarse mining wastes from coal processing plants (20-150 mm), coming from the gravity beneficiation stage (heavy liquids washers) in two hard coal mines of Katowicki Holding Węglowy, e.g.: Wujek and Myslowice-Wesola, Wesoła division. During processing of coal mining wastes two products: crushed mineral aggregate 4-31.5 mm and fine-grained low-energetic product 0-4 mm, were obtained. The mix 4-31.5 from Wujek coal processing wastes demonstrated better quality parameters than the one from wastes in Wesoła mine. It refers to Los Angeles abrasion loss which amounted to 29% (Wesoła - 34%), freeze resistance - 14.1% of weight loss (Wesoła - 17.2%), total coal content 5.1% (Wesoła - 6.0%). The calorific value of fine-grained low energetic product 0-4 mm obtained from wastes from Wesoła mine amounted to 9.4 MJ/ kg, with relatively low sulphur content, so this product can be useful in preparation of fuel mixes with coal fines. Analogous product 0-4 mm obtained from wastes in Wujek mine seems to be less attractive as a fuel mix component