Allopurinol Reduces the Lethality Associated with Acute Renal Failure Induced by Crotalus durissus terrificus Snake Venom: Comparison with Probenecid

In Brazil, among registered snake bites, those by the genus Crotalus originate the highest mortality rate. The rattlesnake Crotalus durissus terrificus is the most frequently implicated in these accidents. The kidney is a particularly vulnerable organ to the venom of this rattlesnake. In fact, the most serious complication of Crotalus snake bite is the renal dysfunction, and among the fatal cases of Crotalus bites in Brazil 5% are patients treated with antivenom. The hyperuricemia has been observed in human accidents with snake venoms, but this parameter has not received any special attention as a relevant factor in the etiology of renal dysfunction caused by these venoms. This study examined the effects of treatments with low-cost and low-risk uricostatic (allopurinol) and uricosuric (probenecid) drugs on the envenomation by C. d. terrificus, showing that allopurinol and probenecid mitigated certain nephrotoxic effects, as well as the survival of envenomed mice was improved through the effects of allopurinol on reduction of oxidative stress and intracellular formation of uric acid. This new knowledge provides consistent evidences linking uric acid with the renal dysfunction induced by rattlesnake bites and that the allopurinol deserves to be clinically evaluated as an approach complementary to anti-snake venom serotherapy

Ocorrência, aspectos toxicológicos, métodos analíticos e controle da patulina em alimentos Occurrence, toxicological aspects, analytical methods and control of patulin in food

A patulina é uma micotoxina produzida por várias espécies de Penicillium, Aspergillus e Byssochlamys. Em experimentos com animais, ela demonstrou ter atividade mutagênica, carcinogênica e teratogênica. Tem sido freqüentemente encontrada em maçãs e derivados. A patulina é facilmente transferida da maçã para o suco durante o processamento devido a sua alta solubilidade em água. Essa micotoxina é muito estável ao aquecimento em meio ácido, como no suco de maçã. Assim, a presença de patulina em suco de maçã é um indicador da qualidade das maçãs utilizadas no processamento. Muitos métodos têm sido desenvolvidos para a determinação da patulina, principalmente baseados na extração líquido-líquido com acetato de etila e determinação por CLAE. É importante evidenciar a necessidade de legislação que regulamente limites dessa micotoxina em alimentos no Brasil. Esta revisão bibliográfica tem como objetivos descrever as principais características da patulina, a ocorrência, os aspectos toxicológicose os métodos desenvolvidos para sua detecção e controle durante os estágios da produção da maçã e suco.<br>Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by several Penicillium, Aspergillus and Byssochlamys species. Patulin is a highly toxic compound which has shown to be mutagenic, carcinogenic and teratogenic in experiments with animals. It has often been found in apples and apple products. Patulin is easily transfered into apple juice during processing due to its high solubility in water. This mycotoxin is very stable to heat in acidic medium as in apple juice. Thus, patulin content of apple juice is an indicator of the quality of the apples used to juice production. Many methods have been developed for the patulin determination mainly based on liquid-liquid extraction with ethyl acetate and use of HPLC for detection. It is important to show the need of legislation that imposes patulin limits in foods in Brazil. The objectives of this review are to describe the main patulin characteristics, occurrence, toxicological aspects, methods developed for patulin detection and control during the stages of apple and juice production