A guide for assessing the potential impacts on ecosystems of leakage from CO2 storage sites

Evidence to date indicates that leakage is of low probability if site selection, characterisation and storage project design are undertaken correctly. In Europe, the Storage Directive (EC, 2009) provides a legislative framework, implemented by Member States, which requires appropriate project design to ensure the storage of CO2 is permanent and safe. However, it is incumbent on storage site operators to demonstrate an understanding of the potential impacts on surface ecosystems should a leak occur. The RISCS (Research into Impacts and Safety in CO2 Storage) project has produced a Guide to potential impacts of leakage from CO2 storage (the ‘Guide’). RISCS assessed the potential effects of CO2 leakage from geological storage on both onshore and offshore near-surface ecosystems and on potable ground water. This assessment was achieved through laboratory and field experiments, through observations at sites of natural CO2 seepage and through numerical simulations. The Guide summarises some of the key findings of the project. The Guide provides information on the best approaches to evaluate potential impacts of hypothetical leakage from CO2 storage sites and to provide guidance on appraising these impacts. This information will be relevant to regulators and operators in particular, but also to other stakeholders who are concerned with CO2 storage, such as national and local governments, and members of the public

Model development to assess carbon fluxes during shell formation in blue mussels

In order to quantify the amount of carbonate, precipitated as calcium-carbonate in the shells of blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) in a temperate climate, an existing Dynamic Energy Budget (DEB) model for the blue mussel was adapted by separating shell growth from soft tissue growth. Hereby, two parameters were added to the original DEB-model, a calcification cost [J/mgCaCO3] and an energy allocation fraction [-], which resulted in the energy allocated for structural growth being divided between shell and meat growth. As values for these new parameters were lacking, they were calibrated by fitting the model to field data. Calibration results showed that an Energy allocation fraction of 0.5 and a calcification cost of 0.9 J/mgCaCO3, resulted in the best fit when fitted on 2017 and 2018 field data separately. These values however, show the best fit for data obtained within the first couple of years of the shellfish life, and do not take later years into account. Also it could be discussed that some parameters vary throughout the lifespan of the species. The results were compared to a regular DEB model, where the shell output was calculated through a simple allometric relationship. It is sometimes assumed that the carbon storage in shell material as calcium carbonate could be regarded as a form of carbon sequestration, with a positive impact on the atmospheric CO2 concentrations. However, studies on the physical-chemical processes related to shell formation have shown that from an oceanographic perspective, shell formation should be regarded as a source of atmospheric CO2 rather than a sink. The removal of carbonates, through the biocalcification process, reduces the buffer capacity (alkalinity) of the water to store CO2. As a result CO2 is released from the water to the atmosphere when shell material is formed. The actual amount of CO2 that escapes from the water to the atmosphere as a result of biocalcification depends strongly on local water characteristics. In this study, the effect of calcification by mussels on the CO2 flux to the atmosphere is studied using an adapted DEB model where energy costs of calcification are modelled explicitly. The model was subsequently run under two future climate scenarios, (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.3) with elevated temperature and decreased pH, and the total released CO2 as a result of shell formation was calculated with the SeaCarb model. This showed growth of mussels, under future climate conditions to be slower, and with that the cumulative shell mass and carbonate precipitated to CaCO3 to decrease. Yet the amount of CO2 released, due to biocalcification, increased. This is due to the fact that the amount of CO2 released/gr of CaCO3 precipitated will be higher, as a result of the decreased buffering capacity of seawater under future climatic environmental conditions. In summary the conclusions of the project were: • Biocalcification (shell formation) of marine organisms, such as bivalves, cannot be regarded as a process resulting in negative CO2 emission to the atmosphere; • The actual amount of CO2 that, due to biocalcification, is released from the water to the atmosphere depends on the physicochemical characteristics of the water, which are influenced by (future) climate conditions; • Our first model calculations suggest that at future climate conditions mussel’s grow rate will be somewhat reduced. While the amount of CO2 that due to biocalcification, escapes to the atmosphere during its life-time will slightly increase. Making the ratio of g CO2 release/g CaCO3 precipitated slightly higher; • Our model calculations should be considered an exercise rather than a definite prediction of how mussels will respond to future climate scenarios. Additional information/experimentation is strongly needed to validate the model settings, and to test the validity of the above mentioned outcome of the model

Inventarisatie aspecten rondom opruimen microplastics na maritieme incidenten

The project Samenwerking Kustverontreiniging na Maritieme Incidenten (Cooperation Coastal Pollution after Maritime Incidents) explores how Rijkswaterstaat can better assist municipalities in cleaning up pollution that washes up on the coast after maritime incidents. In this context, an inventory has been made of methods that can be used to clean up the coastline from microplastics (particularly industrial pellets) that have ended up in the sea as a result of an incident. Broadly speaking, there are three methods used to remove microplastics, namely raking, shovelling or vacuuming, after which a sieve may or may not be used to separate materials. Shovelling or raking are suitable methods for removing plastics from soft sediments without vegetation, such as beaches and possibly tidal flats. On hard substrates, and on moist sand, the 'hoover' is an effective way to collect microplastics reasonably selectively, especially as long as the pellets are still on top of the sand. If the sand is dry, a combination with a sieving system is needed to separate the microplastics from the sand that is also collected. Vacuum cleaning can also be applied to overgrown areas, but as the overgrowth becomes denser, the efficiency with which microplastics are collected decreases. For the vacuum method to work effectively, it is also important to avoid vacuuming coarse (plant) material, as this can quickly clog the vacuum hose. All methods can be used on a small scale, manually, or on a large scale, motorised. Vacuum cleaning seems to be the most suitable method for cleaning up washed-up microplastics from the various substrates. There are a few companies that offer vacuum cleaning systems for the removal of microplastics on the market. These may or may not be equipped with systems that separate the waste, although separating microplastics and plant remains within a size fraction is not possible at present. It is inevitable that organisms will be damaged or removed during clean-up operations. However, if this takes place in a limited area, quick recovery from the surrounding terrain is possible, provided that the structure of the subsurface has not been changed by the clean-up operations. Therefore, vacuuming is preferable to excavating and mowing. To minimise the area that needs to be cleaned up, a fast response after an incident is important, as the plastic can then be cleared while still concentrated in the flood mark. Ideally, an affected beach should be closed to the public so that plastics do not end up deeper in the sand through foot traffic or vehicles. For salt marshes, it is important to act quickly if the plastics are still low on the marshes where the vegetation is less dense. Densely vegetated salt marshes (and silty tidal flats) are difficult to clean without substantial impact on the local system. Ideally, contamination of these areas is prevented by collecting the plastics from the water at an early stage, for example by using oil screens. If microplastics do end up in these areas, 'doing nothing' seems to be the best option, as the impact of the presence of plastic pellets on the ecosystem seems small. However, without specific research, this remains an assumption. It is possible that the ecological effects of pellets are too subtle to be observed under field conditions, but from an ethical and aesthetic point of view, lost waste should always be cleaned up as much as possible. For the further development of knowledge on how best to react after an incident with microplastics, the exchange of knowledge and experience in this field should be promoted within the Netherlands and possibly Europe. If various prototypes of clean-up systems can be tested in this context, a better picture of their actual effectiveness can be obtained. This cooperation may also provide the market perspective that can encourage commercial parties to invest in improving the clean-up methods

Framework for a water quality monitoring program for the Caribbean Netherlands

The NEPP (Nature and Environment Policy Plan, 2020-2030) creates an integral framework for the management of the natural environment in the Caribbean Netherlands. Special attention is given to the protection and restoration of the coral reefs and to increase the resilience of these ecosystems against the impacts of climate change. The current environmental conditions for coral reefs are considered sub-optimal, and therefore the NEPP strategic goal nr.1 is: Reversing the trend of coral reef degradation to create healthy, resilient and restored coral reefs, ensuring well-being in the Caribbean Netherlands. To reach this goal investments will be made in the coming years to reduce the impact of local pressures with respect to erosion, run-off and discharge of untreated wastewater. In addition, a water quality monitoring program (WQ-monitoring program) will be developed to establish the actual water quality status in the coastal zone of the different islands and to be able to detect the effectiveness of measures to improve it. Rijkswaterstaat requested Wageningen Marine Research to develop a first framework for this WQ-monitoring program. This framework aims to: - Specify the objectives of a WQ-monitoring program in the light of the actual policy goals; - Identify relevant indicators of water quality that can be included in the monitoring program; - Propose options for a WQ-monitoring program with respect to frequency and spatial coverage; - Create an inventory of already present monitoring networks and analytical facilities and give a rough indication of the budgets involved. A first set-up of the framework was discussed in two online sessions in October/November 2020 with stakeholders, facilitated by Wageningen Marine Research. The framework presented in this report can guide in the designing of a basic governmental WQ-monitoring program and more dedicated research and development programs to answer specific questions on the islands. Two sampling strategies are described to monitor the surface coastal water quality, one comprehensive and one less intensive. The advantage of monitoring the coastal water is that the monitoring results can directly be related to the conditions at the coral reefs. However, due to water currents and dilution an intense (both spatial as in frequency) sampling program is required. But even then it may be difficult to link the monitoring results with specific pressures and to determine the effectiveness of policy measures. For this aim monitoring groundwater and run-off water quality is probably more efficient. The best option for a monitoring program therefore is to combine a yearly monitoring of ground water and run-off water and biological monitoring of for instance coverage of cyanobacterial mats, with a more or less intensive monitoring of the coastal water at a lower frequency, for instance every 3 years. The design of the actual monitoring program should be tailored for each island

Quantifying ecological risks of aquatic micro- and nanoplastic

Diverse effects of nano- and microplastic (NMP) have been demonstrated in the laboratory. We provide a broad review of current knowledge on occurrence, measurement, modeling approaches, fate, exposure, effects, and effect thresholds as regard to microplastics in the aquatic environment. Using thisinformation, we perform a ‘proof of concept’ risk assessment for NMP, accounting for the diversity of the material. New data is included showing how bioturbation affects exposure, and exposure is evaluated based on literature data and model analyses. We review exposure and effect data and provide aworst case risk characterization, by comparing HC5 effect thresholds from ‘all inclusive’ Species Sensitivity Distributions (SSDs) with the highest environmental concentrations reported. HC5 values show wide confidence intervals yet suggest that sensitive aquatic organisms in near-shore surface waters might be at risk