Long-Term Optimization of Egypt's Power Sector: Policy Implications

This paper presents an evaluation of energy supply strategies for Egypt’s power sector and identifies prospects to meet rising electricity demand while addressing energy security and low-carbon development issues. We apply the TIMES energy system model to examine Egypt’s energy policy goals as reflected in Egypt’s Vision 2030, and specifically: (a) targeted power generation based on renewable energy under two different scenarios; (b) targeted carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions’ mitigation toward low-carbon society development; and (c) constraints on natural gas production for power generation. The quantitative results from the model suggest a need for diversification from predominantly natural gas to a mix of renewable and conventional energy sources in order to improve energy security, reduce dependency on fossil fuels, and reduce carbon dioxide emissions, with the level of diversification changing with different policy options. Although total energy system cost is projected to increase the effects on fossil-fuel dependency, diversity of energy supply-mix, marginal electricity generation price, and GHG mitigation indicate that it may be wise to target promotion of renewable energy for power generation and develop a low-carbon society

Gender-sensitive Risks and Options Assessment for Decision making (ROAD) to support WiF2

The Gender-Sensitive Risks and Options Assessment for Decision Making (ROAD) to Support WiF-2 (ROAD migration project), a partnership coordinated by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Australian National University, American University Beirut, Lincoln University, and University of Dhaka, evaluated the ILO-DFID Partnership Programme on Fair Recruitment and Decent Work for Women Migrant Workers in South Asia and the Middle East (Work in Freedom, Phase 2 project [WiF-2]), which operated from 2018 to 2023. The WiF-2 project specifically aimed “to reduce vulnerability to trafficking and forced labour of women and girls across migration pathways leading to the care sector and textiles, clothing, leather and footwear industries (TCLFI) of South Asia and Arab States” (ToC WiF-2)

Reducing vulnerability to forced labor and trafficking of short-term, low-skilled women migrant workers in the South Asia to Middle East corridor

Millions of female migrants experience various forms of exploitative and unsafe conditions when migrating for employment and income generation, both in countries of origin and in destination countries. Vulnerabilities increased further due to the Covid-19 pandemic, causing income and job losses, entrapment in countries of destination without financial or social support and stigmatization upon return. One of the key migration routes travelled by millions of migrants is from South Asia to the Middle East. We examine this migration route for low-skilled female migrant workers highlighting the impacts of interventions along the migration pathway to determine the effectiveness of alternative mechanisms for reducing forced labour and trafficking. We draw lessons from the literature as well as from interviews with key informants in the field, including academics, development partners, NGO workers, and policymakers, to identify promising interventions that successfully reduce the vulnerability of women migrants. We find that, while Covid-19 has increased migrant vulnerability, it has also exposed the current system’s violations in facilitating trafficking and exacerbating poor working conditions

Reducing vulnerability to forced labour and trafficking of women migrant workers from South- to West-Asia

Millions of short-term, low-skilled women migrant workers from South-Asia to West-Asia experience exploitative and unsafe conditions. We review evidence from literature and interview 18 key informants to assess the exploitation migrant women face, and highlight the impacts of past interventions to determine their potential, and realised effectiveness, in reducing forced labour and trafficking. We find that women face varied precarious situations along the migration pathway, including interactions with recruiters in the home country, incurring debt, pre-departure formalities and training, withheld wages and mobility restrictions. We discuss varying degrees of success of mechanisms that aim to reduce vulnerability to forced labour

Reducing vulnerability to forced labor and trafficking for women migrants: A case study on migration pathways from South Asia to the Middle East

Millions of female migrants experience various forms of exploitative and unsafe conditions when migrating for employment and income generation, both in countries of origin and in destination countries. For migrant workers the Covid-19 pandemic has caused income and job losses, entrapment in countries of destination without financial or social support, as well as stigmatization upon returning home. One of the key migration routes travelled by millions of migrants is from South Asia to the Middle East. We examine this precarious migration route for female migrant workers, particularly domestic and readymade garments workers, to highlight the conditions and challenges that lead to exploitation along the migration pathway. We determine what are considered the most important or effective (as well as least effective) mechanisms for reducing forced labour and trafficking. We draw lessons from the literature as well as interviews with key informants in the field, inclusive of academics, development partners, NGO workers, and policymakers, to identify promising interventions that successfully reduce the vulnerability of women migrants. Rather than only looking at conditions that impact women migrants in sending or destination countries, this paper takes a comprehensive approach, focusing on the entire migration pathway. This includes considering countries of origin and destination, the recruitment and employment process, policy frameworks, and the added challenges of the Covid-19 pandemic including repatriation. We find that while Covid-19 has increased migrant vulnerability, it has also heightened calls for action through increasing exposure of the current system's violations in facilitating trafficking and exacerbating poor working conditions

Women’s Empowerment in Migration Index (WEMI): A tool to monitor progress on the reduction of forced labour and human trafficking

Evidence on the number of migrant women affected by forced labour and human trafficking is scant. Even more alarmingly, little is known about the role of women’s agency in migration. In this paper, we develop the conceptual framework and key elements of a Women’s Empowerment in Migration Index (WEMI) that aims to reflect the multiple dimensions of agency of female migrants. We argue that WEMI is integral to monitoring progress towards SDG 8.7 on the eradication of forced labour, modern slavery, and human trafficking. Since the 1990s there has been a particular focus on women’s empowerment in agriculture with burgeoning evidence on the negative consequences of the gender gap and increasing feminisation of agriculture. Existing country-level indices like the Gender Development Index (GDI) or the Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) have been widely adapted for measuring progress, but are inadequate to measure empowerment at the individual level as defined by Kabeer (1999). Kabeer (1999) defines empowerment “as a process by which people expand their ability to make strategic life choices” (Malapit et al. 2019). Kabeer’s framework has been used as a basis for the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), a multidimensional index based on individual-level data of male and female household members (Alkire et al. 2013). Based on the notion of three types of agency (Malapit et al. 2019), intrinsic agency (power within); instrumental agency (power to); and collective agency (power with) this paper develops, to our knowledge, the first tool to measure empowerment of migrant women. The WEMI includes five dimensions beyond the WEAI, including control over the use of remittances, the experience of abuse at work, access to social networks, physical mobility and time-use agency. As women’s empowerment affects and is affected by different stages of the migration process, the WEMI aims to reflect changes in the agency of women across different stages of migration: pre-departure/potential migrants (in the country of origin), migrants during the migration stage (from departure training, to being fully integrated at the country of work), at work in host country and following the return to the country of origin. The WEMI will advance research over earlier assessments of women’s experiences in the migration process beyond more seemingly objective indicators, such as income, health and nutrition to incorporate subjective wellbeing statements in the migration literature. The framework and index will be tested in Bangladesh in districts with high international migration of women to Middle Eastern countries, including the garment sector in Jordan and as domestic care workers in Lebanon

Women’s Empowerment in Migration Index (WEMI): Do we need another index for women empowerment?

Evidence on the number of migrant women affected by forced labour and human trafficking is scant. In this presentation, we describe a conceptual framework and key elements of a Women’s Empowerment in Migration Index (WEMI) that aims to reflect the multiple dimensions of agency of female migrants. We believe that WEMI will be integral to monitoring progress towards SDG 8.7 on eradicating forced labour, modern slavery, and human trafficking. Following development, the study aims to analyze two hypotheses: (i) access to information facilitated by social networks increases migrant women’s collective and intrinsic agency; (ii) higher women’s empowerment contributes to better psychological wellbeing and life satisfaction for migrant women. The WEMI is currently being tested in Bangladesh, in districts with high international out-migration of women to West Asian countries, including the garment sector in Jordan and as domestic care workers in Lebanon