Paving the Way for Consensus: Improving the Effectiveness of Multilateral Negotiation Management at the WTO

Reaching decisions on international trade by consensus amongst 164 governments is an extraordinarily difficult task. Social science research demonstrates that the management of the negotiation process by the host government and WTO Secretariat can play an important role in tipping the balance between deadlock and agreement. This requires close coordination between the representative of the host country and the Director General of the WTO. While effective process management alone will not solve the problems that the WTO faces, it can create more favourable conditions for reaching consensus. Conversely, poor process makes this already- difficult task practically impossible. Effective negotiation management consists of seven key elements: preparing well in advance; teamwork both within the host team and between the hosts and the Secretariat; transparent, consistent and realistic communication; selecting the right individuals for the job; breaking the process down into small-group negotiations and handling this with care; leveraging the legitimacy that non-party stakeholders can bring to the process; and increasing the likelihood of agreement through managing the agenda, draft texts, and the overall atmosphere of the negotiations. Both process and context determine negotiation outcomes. Comparing the 1999 Seattle Ministerial Con- ference with the 2001 Doha Ministerial Conference allows one to hold the context relatively constant, thus demonstrating the independent effect of process management. Variation in process management by the respective organisers of the two summits led to very different outcomes. The 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change was a notable success for multilateralism. Like WTO negotiations, climate negotiations also take place in the challenging environment of consensus decision- making. Process management by the French hosts is considered a model of best practice, and has been widely credited as a factor behind the successful outcome. Lessons can be learned from this case. Future hosts of Ministerial Conferences are specifically recommended to pay attention to the following: It is vital to consult with as many members as possible in advance of the Ministerial. If budget allows, it is preferable to travel to capitals to demonstrate respect. Toavoidconflictfurtherdowntheroad,clearlydefinetherespectiverolesoftheDirector-Gen- eral and the Conference Chair from the outset, with the Conference chair taking the political lead. Thehostgovernmentcannotmanagetheentireprocessaloneandwillneedtoappointfacilitators to chair issue-specific working groups. This critical role requires specific skills and experience. Organising a workshop for facilitators in advance of the Ministerial could increase their effective- ness. The format, attendees and timing of small-group negotiations at the Ministerial can all affect re- sults. Whatever form these meetings take, transparency is a key consideration. Seemingly trivial details such as room facilities, security and catering at the venue all matter to delegates and can cause unnecessary friction when mismanaged

How might we increase physical activity through dog walking?: A comprehensive review of dog walking correlates

BACKGROUND: Physical inactivity and sedentary behaviour are major threats to population health. A considerable proportion of people own dogs, and there is good evidence that dog ownership is associated with higher levels of physical activity. However not all owners walk their dogs regularly. This paper comprehensively reviews the evidence for correlates of dog walking so that effective interventions may be designed to increase the physical activity of dog owners. METHODS: Published findings from 1990–2012 in both the human and veterinary literature were collated and reviewed for evidence of factors associated with objective and self-reported measures of dog walking behaviour, or reported perceptions about dog walking. Study designs included cross-sectional observational, trials and qualitative interviews. RESULTS: There is good evidence that the strength of the dog-owner relationship, through a sense of obligation to walk the dog, and the perceived support and motivation a dog provides for walking, is strongly associated with increased walking. The perceived exercise requirements of the dog may also be a modifiable point for intervention. In addition, access to suitable walking areas with dog supportive features that fulfil dog needs such as off-leash exercise, and that also encourage human social interaction, may be incentivising. CONCLUSION: Current evidence suggests that dog walking may be most effectively encouraged through targeting the dog-owner relationship and by providing dog-supportive physical environments. More research is required to investigate the influence of individual owner and dog factors on ‘intention’ to walk the dog as well as the influence of human social interaction whilst walking a dog. The effects of policy and cultural practices relating to dog ownership and walking should also be investigated. Future studies must be of a higher quality methodological design, including accounting for the effects of confounding between variables, and longitudinal designs and testing of interventions in a controlled design in order to infer causality

Factors associated with daily walking of dogs

Background: Regular physical activity is beneficial to the health of both people and animals. The role of regular exercise undertaken together, such as dog walking, is a public health interest of mutual benefit. Exploration of barriers and incentives to regular dog walking by owners is now required so that effective interventions to promote it can be designed. This study explored a well-characterised cross-sectional dataset of 276 dogs and owners from Cheshire, UK, for evidence of factors associated with the dog being walked once or more per day. Results: Factors independently associated with daily walking included: number of dogs owned (multiple (vs. single) dogs negatively associated); size (medium and possibly large dogs (vs. small) positively associated); and number of people in the household (more people negatively associated). Furthermore, a number of factors related to the dog-owner relationship and the dog's behaviour were associated with daily walking, including: having acquired the dog for a hobby (positively associated); dog lying on furniture (positively associated); dog lying on laps (negatively associated); growling at household members (negatively associated); and playing chase games with the dog (negatively associated). Conclusions: These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the strength and nature of the human-dog relationship incentivises dog walking, and that behavioural and demographic factors may affect dog walking via this mechanism. Future studies need to investigate how dog demographic and behavioural factors, plus owner behavioural factors and perceptions of the dog, influence the dog-human relationship in respect to the perceived support and motivation a dog can provide for walking

Factors associated with daily walking of dogs

BACKGROUND: Regular physical activity is beneficial to the health of both people and animals. The role of regular exercise undertaken together, such as dog walking, is a public health interest of mutual benefit. Exploration of barriers and incentives to regular dog walking by owners is now required so that effective interventions to promote it can be designed. This study explored a well-characterised cross-sectional dataset of 276 dogs and owners from Cheshire, UK, for evidence of factors associated with the dog being walked once or more per day. RESULTS: Factors independently associated with daily walking included: number of dogs owned (multiple (vs. single) dogs negatively associated); size (medium and possibly large dogs (vs. small) positively associated); and number of people in the household (more people negatively associated). Furthermore, a number of factors related to the dog-owner relationship and the dog’s behaviour were associated with daily walking, including: having acquired the dog for a hobby (positively associated); dog lying on furniture (positively associated); dog lying on laps (negatively associated); growling at household members (negatively associated); and playing chase games with the dog (negatively associated). CONCLUSIONS: These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the strength and nature of the human-dog relationship incentivises dog walking, and that behavioural and demographic factors may affect dog walking via this mechanism. Future studies need to investigate how dog demographic and behavioural factors, plus owner behavioural factors and perceptions of the dog, influence the dog-human relationship in respect to the perceived support and motivation a dog can provide for walking

Utilization of the halophytic shrubs Atriplex nummularia Lindl and Rhagodia preissii Moq as crops in salt-affected semi-arid regions:How temperature, salinity, seed weight and size affect seed germination

The perennial halophytic shrubs Atriplex nummularia and Rhagodia preissii are native to Australia and can be planted on saline land to produce sheep and cattle feed during the autumn. However, an impediment to the adoption of the species on saline land has been the challenges in achieving successful establishment by direct seeding due to a lack of knowledge of the optimal conditions for germination. Therefore, the optimal germination requirements in relation to temperature, salinity level and seed size was assessed for each species to ascertain the optimal conditions for successful establishment by direct seeding on saline land. Seeds of both species showed optimal germination temperature at 10°C. Atriplex nummularia seeds were more tolerant to temperatures above or below 10°C than R. preissii. The germination percentage of A. nummularia was unchanged at 0–200 mM NaCl(2). The germination percentage of Rhagodia preissii declined when the NaCl(2) content exceeded 50 mM. There was no correlation between seed size, germination and emergence for any of the species. Based on the study, we suggest that sowing operations are performed during the cold winter months in subtropical areas or autumn and spring in temperate areas, to improve the successful establishment of these shrubs by direct seeding

Exploring stakeholders\u27 perceptions of the acceptability, usability, and dissemination of the australian 24-hour movement guidelines for the early years

Background: Australian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for the Early Years were recently developed. To maximize the uptake of the guidelines, perceptions of key stakeholders were sought. Methods: Thirty-five stakeholders (11% Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent) participated in focus groups or key informant interviews. Stakeholders included parents of children aged 0-5 years, early childhood educators, and health and policy professionals, recruited using convenience and snowballing techniques. Focus groups and interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Data were analyzed inductively using thematic analysis. Results: There was general acceptance of the Movement Guidelines. The stakeholders suggested that the Guidelines were highly aspirational and needed to be carefully messaged, so parents did not feel guilty if their child was not meeting them. Stakeholders identified that the messaging needed to be culturally appropriate and visually appealing. Dissemination strategies differed depending on the stakeholder. Conclusion: Seeking stakeholder perceptions is an important process in the development of national Movement Guidelines. This study successfully examined stakeholders\u27 perceptions regarding the acceptability, usability, and dissemination of the Australian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines. Effective and innovative strategies for maximizing compliance and uptake of the Guidelines should be prioritized

Using accelerometers and global positioning system devices to assess gender and age differences in children's school, transport, leisure and home based physical activity

BACKGROUND: Knowledge on domain-specific physical activity (PA) has the potential to advance public health interventions and inform new policies promoting children’s PA. The purpose of this study is to identify and assess domains (leisure, school, transport, home) and subdomains (e.g., recess, playgrounds, and urban green space) for week day moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) using objective measures and investigate gender and age differences. METHODS: Participants included 367 Danish children and adolescents (11–16 years, 52% girls) with combined accelerometer and Global Positioning System (GPS) data (mean 2.5 days, 12.7 hrs/day). The Personal Activity and Location Measurement System and a purpose-built database assessed data in 15-second epochs to determine PA and assign epochs to 4 domains and 11 subdomains. Frequencies and proportions of time spent in MVPA were determined and differences assessed using multi-level modeling. RESULTS: More than 90% of MVPA was objectively assigned to domains/subdomains. Boys accumulated more MVPA overall, in leisure, school and transport (all p < 0.05). Children compared with adolescents accumulated more MVPA, primarily through more school MVPA (p < 0.05). Boys spent a large proportion of time accumulating MVPA in playgrounds, active transport, Physical Education, sports facilities, urban green space and school grounds. Girls spent a significant proportion of time accumulating MVPA in active transport and playgrounds. No gender or age differences were found in the home domain. CONCLUSIONS: Large variations were found in PA frequency and intensity across domains/subdomains. Significant gender differences were found, with girls being less active in almost all domains and subdomains. Objectively measured patterns of PA across domains/subdomains can be used to better tailor PA interventions and inform future policies for promoting child PA

Australian children\u27s physical activity and screen time while in grandparental care

Objective: The objective of this study was to explore Australian children\u27s engagement in physical activity and screen time while being cared for by their grandparents. Method: Grandparents (N = 1,190) providing ≥3 hours of weekly care to a grandchild aged 3–14 years completed an online survey assessing their grandchildren\u27s movement behaviours while in their care. Descriptive statistics were computed for frequency of engagement in unstructured and structured physical activities, minutes spent playing outdoors, and minutes spent engaged in screen time. Regression analyses were conducted to assess socio-demographic predictors of movement behaviours. Results: Playing in the yard was the most common form of physical activity in which grandchildren reportedly participated (77% ‘usually’ or ‘always’), followed by playing with toys/equipment (62%). Few (14–36%) frequently engaged in active transport. Children spent an average of 181 minutes per week engaged in screen-based activities. Conclusions: There is an opportunity to improve children\u27s movement behaviours while in grandparental care. Communicating to grandparents their importance in supporting an active lifestyle is warranted. Implications for Public Health: Findings highlight the importance of creating environments that facilitate play-based, outdoor activities. Ensuring children have access to play equipment while in the care of grandparents and improving access to and quality of neighbourhood parks may assist with activity promotion

Meta-analysis of diagnostic accuracy studies with multiple thresholds – comparison of different approaches

Methods for standard meta-analysis of diagnostic test accuracy studies are well established and understood. For the more complex case in which studies report test accuracy across multiple thresholds, several approaches have recently been proposed. These are based on similar ideas, but make different assumptions. In this article, we apply four different approaches to data from a recent systematic review in the area of nephrology and compare the results. The four approaches use: a linear mixed effects model, a Bayesian multinomial random effects model, a time-to-event model and a nonparametric model, respectively. In the case study data, the accuracy of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin for the diagnosis of acute kidney injury was assessed in different scenarios, with sensitivity and specificity estimates available for three thresholds in each primary study. All approaches led to plausible and mostly similar summary results. However, we found considerable differences in results for some scenarios, for example, differences in the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of up to 0.13. The Bayesian approach tended to lead to the highest values of the AUC, and the nonparametric approach tended to produce the lowest values across the different scenarios. Though we recommend using these approaches, our findings motivate the need for a simulation study to explore optimal choice of method in various scenarios

Using Specialist Screening Practitioners (SSPs) to increase uptake of the Bowel Scope (Flexible Sigmoidoscopy) Screening Programme: a study protocol for a feasibility single-stage phase II trial

Background: The NHS Bowel Scope Screening (BSS) programme offers men and women aged 55 years a onceonly flexible sigmoidoscopy (FS), a test that can help reduce colorectal cancer (CRC) incidence and mortality. However, the benefits of BSS are contingent on uptake. This National Institute for Health Research-funded singlestage phase II trial will test the feasibility of using patient navigation (PN), an intervention that offers support to patients to overcome barriers to healthcare, to increase BSS uptake within a socially deprived area of England. Methods/design: All individuals invited for BSS at South Tyneside NHS Foundation Trust during the 6-month recruitment period will be invited to take part in the study. Consenting participants will be randomised to receive PN or usual care in a 2:1 ratio. PN involves non-attenders receiving a phone call from a Specialist Screening Practitioner (SSP) who will elicit reasons for non-attendance and offer educational, practical, and emotional support as needed. If requested by the patient, another appointment for BSS will then be arranged. We anticipate 30 % of participants will be non-attenders. Using A’Hern single-stage design, with 20 % significance level and 80 % power, at least 35 participants who receive PN need to subsequently attend for PN to be considered worthy of further investigation in a definitive trial. The primary outcome measure will be the number of participants in the PN group who re-book and attend their BSS appointment. A qualitative analysis of the PN transcripts, and interviews with the SSPs, will also be conducted, alongside a quantitative analysis of completed patient-reported experience questionnaires. An economic analysis will calculate the costs of delivering PN. Discussion: This feasibility study will be instrumental in deciding whether to conduct the first definitive trial of PN in BSS in England. If PN is subsequently shown to be cost-effective at increasing uptake of BSS, NHS policies could be modified to implement PN as a standard service. The results will be disseminated in peer-reviewed journals and at scientific conferences. Trial registration: International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number, ISRCTN1331475