Research on The Criminal Liability of Battered Woman’s Homicidal Act

“受虐妇女杀夫”，其间的暴力与血腥令人震惊、唏嘘，却让普通大众看见了女性在遭受经年累月的家庭暴力后的无奈抗争。在当今法治社会，受虐妇女应当为其所犯罪行承当相应的刑事责任，但其情可悯。此类案件系因长期的家庭暴力所引起，在刑事诉讼当中具有独特性，其在刑事责任的认定上，应当与普通故意杀人行为相区别，以做到罚当其罪。 针对受虐妇女杀夫行为的定性，域外“受虐妇女综合症”理论可谓“另辟蹊径”，同时，此理论对传统正当防卫的大胆突破亦让人耳目一新。乍看之下，其的确为我国受虐妇女杀夫案件的处理提供了一条新思路，但是，此条思路在我国的司法实践中遭遇了巨大“尴尬”，即：受虐妇女综合症与我国正当防卫的时间条件、限度...Battered women’s behavior of murdering husband really shocks us , while it lets the public see the battered women’s helpless fighting against the domestic violence for years. We really feel sorry for them. In modern legal system society, the battered women should bear the corresponding criminal liability, though their bitter experience is sympathetic. There are specific characteristics for such ca...学位：法学硕士院系专业：法学院_刑法学学号：1362012115017

Long-Term Trends in Marriage Timing and the Impact of Migration, the Netherlands (1650-1899)

The features of historical marriage patterns have been linked to debates in social and economic history about economic growth and female agency. However, there is a lack of empirical evidence on the demographics of marriage prior to the nineteenth century. Here, we study trends in sex-specific ages at first marriage, regional variation and the impact of migration on marital timing in the Netherlands in the period 1650-1900. We make use of two new large historical datasets, namely an aggregation of Dutch genealogies and the transcribed marriage banns of Amsterdam. This allows us to understand the features and developments of marriage ages from a long-term perspective in what is known as one of the core-areas of the so-called European Marriage Pattern. Our results show high marriage ages for both sexes from the beginning of our study period, increasing until the mid-19th century. A closer look at regional variation reveals clear differences between the provinces and between urban and rural settings with those in the western part of the country and in urban centers marrying earlier. Migrating individuals married on average later than non-migrating individuals both compared to men and women in the receiving community, as to the ‘stayers’ in the location of origin. As later marriage implies a reduction of the window of fertility, especially for women, our results suggest that migration and increasing regional mobility might have been an important driver of the demographic shift toward higher marriage ages and lower fertility in Europe between the 17th and 19th centuries

Mothers with higher twinning propensity had lower fertility in pre-industrial Europe

Historically, mothers producing twins gave birth, on average, more often than non-twinners. This observation has been interpreted as twinners having higher intrinsic fertility - a tendency to conceive easily irrespective of age and other factors - which has shaped both hypotheses about why twinning persists and varies across populations, and the design of medical studies on female fertility. Here we show in >20k pre-industrial European mothers that this interpretation results from an ecological fallacy: twinners had more births not due to higher intrinsic fertility, but because mothers that gave birth more accumulated more opportunities to produce twins. Controlling for variation in the exposure to the risk of twinning reveals that mothers with higher twinning propensity - a physiological predisposition to producing twins - had fewer births, and when twin mortality was high, fewer offspring reaching adulthood. Twinning rates may thus be driven by variation in its mortality costs, rather than variation in intrinsic fertility

Increased Mortality Exposure within the Family Rather than Individual Mortality Experiences Triggers Faster Life-History Strategies in Historic Human Populations

Life History Theory predicts that extrinsic mortality risk is one of the most important factors shaping (human) life histories. Evidence from contemporary populations suggests that individuals confronted with high mortality environments show characteristic traits of fast life-history strategies: they marry and reproduce earlier, have shorter birth intervals and invest less in their offspring. However, little is known of the impact of mortality experiences on the speed of life histories in historical human populations with generally higher mortality risk, and on male life histories in particular. Furthermore, it remains unknown whether individual-level mortality experiences within the family have a greater effect on life-history decisions or family membership explains life-history variation. In a comparative approach using event history analyses, we study the impact of family versus individual-level effects of mortality exposure on two central life-history parameters, ages at first marriage and first birth, in three historical human populations (Germany, Finland, Canada). Mortality experience is measured as the confrontation with sibling deaths within the natal family up to an individual's age of 15. Results show that the speed of life histories is not adjusted according to individual-level mortality experiences but is due to family-level effects. The general finding of lower ages at marriage/reproduction after exposure to higher mortality in the family holds for both females and males. This study provides evidence for the importance of the family environment for reproductive timing while individual-level mortality experiences seem to play only a minor role in reproductive life history decisions in humans

The impact of mortality on human life histories : Studying historical family data from Germany, Finland and Canada (17th-19th centuries) in the context of life history theory

Aus verschiedenen Forschungsdisziplinen wie der historischen Demographie, der Life-History Theory und der evolutionären Psychologie gibt es Hinweise darauf, dass Mortalitätserfahrungen ein wichtiger Einflussfaktor auf menschliche Lebensverläufe sind. Darauf aufbauend wird in der vorliegenden Studie der Einfluss von frühen Mortalitätsrisiken auf Lebensverläufe (Überleben und Reproduktionsverhalten) von Männern und Frauen in historischen Populationen untersucht. Dabei stehen zwei Aspekte von Mortalitätskrisen im Fokus: 1. epidemiologische Krisen, 2. Todeskonfrontation in der Natalfamilie. In der ersten Teilstudie wurde anhand von Familienrekonstitutionen der historischen deutschen Küstenregion Krummhörn untersucht, wie sich das Überleben und das Reproduktionsverhalten von Frauen und Männern mit und ohne Mortalitätserfahrung unterscheidet. Mortalitätserfahrung wurde hier definiert als die prä- und postnatale Konfrontation mit einer hohen Pathogenbelastung in der Umwelt (Pockenepidemie). Die Ergebnisse zeigen einen deutlichen Geschlechtsunterschied bezüglich der Effekte sowohl auf das Überleben als auch auf reproduktive Parameter. Betroffene Frauen sind in ihrem späteren Überleben nicht beeinträchtigt, sie haben aber signifikant weniger Geburten. Für die betroffenen Männer ändert sich der Einfluss auf die Überlebenswahrscheinlichkeit über die Zeit: Das Mortalitätsrisiko ist in der Kindheit erhöht, aber im späteren Erwachsenenleben reduziert. Darüber hinaus reproduzieren sich Männer mit Mortalitätserfahrung früher und haben einen geringeren Anteil überlebender Nachkommen. Diese Studie unterstützt somit nicht bisherige Studien, die einen negativen Zusammenhang zwischen früher Kranheitsbelastung und späterem Überleben fanden und widerspricht damit dem Konzept des Cohort Morbidity Phenotype. Stattdessen wird argumentiert, dass aufgrund grundlegender Unterschiede in männlichen und weiblichen Lebensstrategien Männer (besonders in frühen Lebensphasen) fragiler und anfälliger gegenüber Krankheiten sind. Schlechte Lebensbedingungen könnten daher einen größeren Einfluss auf männliches Überleben und ihre Reproduktions-strategie besitzen. Die vorgefundenen Merkmale der Männer legen den Schluss nahe, dass sie aufgrund geringer Lebenserwartung eine schnelle LH-Strategie verfolgen. In der Literatur finden sich bereits zahlreiche Hinweise darauf, dass frühe stressreiche Lebensumwelten das Tempo des Lebensverlaufs beeinflussen können. Allerdings mangelt es an Informationen über Einflüsse auf männliche Lebensstrategien und darüber, ob allgemeine Umweltbedingungen, Familieneinflüsse oder individuelle Erfahrungen den größeren Einfluss haben. Anhand von drei historischen Populationen (Krummhörn, Finnland, Québec) wird in der zweiten Teilstudie untersucht, ob die Mortalitätsbelastung in der Umwelt, innerhalb der Familie oder auf Basis individueller Erfahrungen, Einfluss auf den Lebensverlauf nimmt. Im Fokus stehen hierbei die zentralen LH-Parameter Alter bei der ersten Heirat und Alter bei der ersten Geburt. Die Analysen zeigen, dass offenbar beide Geschlechter ihre LH-Strategie den herrschenden Mortalitätsbedingungen anpassen können, deutlichere Effekte gibt es allerdings bei den Männern. Dies gilt sowohl für Einflüsse auf der Populations- als auch auf Familienebene. Männer zeigen hier mit früherer Heirat und früherer Reproduktion Merkmale schneller Lebensverläufe. Damit ergänzt diese Studie bisherige Ergebnisse, welche fast ausschließlich Effekte für Frauen festgestellt haben. Darüber hinaus liefert die vorliegende Studie Belege dafür, wie wichtig Umweltfaktoren im Allgemeinen und die Familienumwelt im Speziellen für die Entwicklung bestimmter Reproduktionsstrategien sind. Individuelle Erfahrungen scheinen für LH-Entscheidungen lediglich eine untergeordnete Rolle zu spielen.Studies from different scientific disciplines, such as historical demography, life history theory and evolutionary psychology, show that mortality exposure is an important environmental cue shaping human life histories (LH). Based on this assumption this study examines the impact of early mortality crises on LH of males and females in historical populations. Two aspects of mortality crises are addressed: 1. epidemiological crises, 2. exposure to death within the natal family. The first aspect of how epidemiological crises affect survival and reproductive behavior of males and females is analyzed using family reconstitution data from the historical German coastal region Krummhörn. Mortality exposure in this context is defined as pre- and postnatal exposure to high levels of pathogen load in the environment (smallpox epidemic). The results show a marked sex difference in the impact of early-life mortality exposure on both survival and reproductive parameters. Exposed females show no effect on their life expectancy, but significantly reduced fertility (number of children). For exposed males, however, the effect on survival is opponent over time: mortality is increased during childhood but decreased in late adulthood. Above that, exposed males reproduce earlier and have a smaller proportion of surviving children. Consequently, this study does not support former studies indicating a negative association between early-life disease load and later survival and therefore contradicts the concept of the cohort morbidity phenotype. I argue that due to differences in male and female life strategies, males in general are more vulnerable especially early in life. Hence, adverse environmental conditions may have a stronger effect on male survivability and reproductive performance. To conclude, males seem to speed up their LH due to a reduced life expectancy in the historic Krummhörn population. Diverse studies have already found evidence for a linkage between early stressful environmental conditions and the timing of life history events. However, little is known, so far, about the impact on male LH strategies and whether environmental conditions, family environment or individual experiences have the biggest impact on human life history decisions. In a comparative approach I analyze the second aspect of mortality crises. I compare the effects of population, family and individual level mortality experience on age at first marriage and age at first birth in males and females in three historic human populations (Krummhörn, Finland, Québec). The results show that both sexes can adjust the speed of their LH according to mortality exposure, however, effects were more pronounced in males. This holds both for the population and the family level. With traits such as earlier marriage and first birth, males show characteristics of fast life histories. These results complement the current literature on life history effects primarily in females. Furthermore, this study provides evidence for the importance of environmental factors and the family environment for reproductive timing. Individual experiences seem to play only a minor role in these LH decisions

Social Strata Differentials in Reproductive Behavior among Agricultural Families in the Krummhörn Region (East Frisia, 1720-1874)

In this paper, we investigate how the reproductive behavior of families in the historical Krummhörn region was affected by their social status and by short-term fluctuations in their socioeconomic conditions. Poisson and Cox regression models are used to analyze the age at first reproduction, fertility, the sex ratio of the offspring, sex-specific infant/child survival, and the number of children. In addition, we investigate how fluctuations in crop prices affected infant and child mortality and fertility using Cox proportional regression models. We also include information about the seasonal climate that may have had an effect on crop prices, as well as on infant mortality via other pathways. We find that the economic upper class produced more infants and had more children who survived to adulthood than the lower social strata. While the upper class did not have lower infant and child mortality than the lower class, they had more surviving children because of their shorter birth intervals and lower female age at marriage. Crop prices did not affect mortality or fertility before 1820. From 1820 onwards, high crop prices were associated with increased child (but not infant) mortality and with extended inter-birth intervals. We believe this period-sensitive response to changes in the crop price was the result of a social transition that took place during our study period, in which relations between the classes went from being based on communal “table fellowships” (Tischgemeinschaft) to being based on capitalist employer/employee arrangements

Descriptives for the study populations (Krummhörn, Finland and Québec) including sample sizes, mean ages at marriage and first birth as well as proportions of individuals confronted with mortality separated by sex.

<p>Note: Mortality exposure refers to the exposure to sibling deaths before the focal individual reaches age 15.</p

Results for the Event History Analysis on age at first marriage and age at first birth in relation to early mortality exposure for the Krummhörn, the Finnish, and the Québec population.

<p>Results are shown for both the iwt-models (controlling for covariates showing an interaction with time if the proportionality assumption is not met) and the stratified model (stratification by family ID to control for family membership). The effects of the included covariates are reported as hazard ratios (HR). Sex is coded as 0 =  female and 1 =  male. For complete results of the models including all covariates see the supporting information (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0083633#pone.0083633.s001" target="_blank">tables S1</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0083633#pone.0083633.s002" target="_blank">S2</a> and <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0083633#pone.0083633.s003" target="_blank">S3</a>).</p><p>iwt  =  controlling for covariates showing an interaction with time.</p><p>Significance: *** p<0.001; ** p<0.01; * p<0.05; +p<0.1.</p

NL, BE and DE first marriages and lifespans 1600-1899 (GO 924 set)

A data set of first marriages (including marriage location and ages of spouses at marriage) and lifespans of spouses (including year and location of births and deaths, where known), for marriages conducted between 1600 and 1899 in the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany. Also included is a binary indicator for whether the marriage, birth or death locations were urban or rural between 1600 and 1800, according to the coding system used by Bosker et al. 2013 [Rev. Econ. Stat., <st rong>95(4), 1418-1437 doi:10.1162/REST_a_00284]. The data set is derived from a genealogical database, which was constructed from family tree (GEDCOM) files contributed by users of www.genealogieonline.nl. The genealogical data from contributed files was error-checked before being combined into a single database using the TreeChecker application. From the initial pool of >1600 f iles contributed by the users of www.genealogieonline.nl, 924 files were included in the database after an assessment of the percentage of errors in each file, hence the database is known as the GO 924 set.Duplicate marriages were identified by the year of marriage and the first 7 letters of each spouse surname, whereupon a random duplicate was selected for inclusion in the data set. Note that names of individuals and exact dates of marria ges, births and deaths are excluded from this data set to prevent identification of individuals, as the genealogical data was provided to our research group on the basis that it would only be published in an aggregated or anonymised format. Access to the un-anonymised data may be granted subject to confidentiality agreements, please contact the authors for further information. Marriages were only included where the place of marriage had been checked and geocoded with latitude and longitude coordinates, where (as far as we could ascertain) it was the first marriage of the spouse, age at marriage was &gt; 13 for both spouses, all lifespans were &lt; 111 and no estimated dates were used to calculate spouse lifespan.The dataset is in a long format, in which there is a separate record for each spouse. It can be determined whether the spouse is the husba nd or wife (and conversely whether the other is the wife or husband) by the `spouse_sex` variable. A description of each variable is included in the text file accompanying the csv data file.</p

Long-Term Trends in Marriage Timing and the Impact of Migration, the Netherlands (1650-1899)

The features of historical marriage patterns have been linked to debates in social and economic history about economic growth and female agency. However, there is a lack of empirical evidence on the demographics of marriage prior to the nineteenth century. Here, we study trends in sex-specific ages at first marriage, regional variation and the impact of migration on marital timing in the Netherlands in the period 1650-1900. We make use of two new large historical datasets, namely an aggregation of Dutch genealogies and the transcribed marriage banns of Amsterdam. This allows us to understand the features and developments of marriage ages from a long-term perspective in what is known as one of the core-areas of the so-called European Marriage Pattern. Our results show high marriage ages for both sexes from the beginning of our study period, increasing until the mid-19th century. A closer look at regional variation reveals clear differences between the provinces and between urban and rural settings with those in the western part of the country and in urban centers marrying earlier. Migrating individuals married on average later than non-migrating individuals both compared to men and women in the receiving community, as to the ‘stayers’ in the location of origin. As later marriage implies a reduction of the window of fertility, especially for women, our results suggest that migration and increasing regional mobility might have been an important driver of the demographic shift toward higher marriage ages and lower fertility in Europe between the 17th and 19th centuries