Engineering the CYP101 system for in vivo oxidation of unnatural substrates.

The protein engineering of CYP enzymes for structure-activity studies and the oxidation of unnatural substrates for biotechnological applications will be greatly facilitated by the availability of functional, whole-cell systems for substrate oxidation. We report the construction of a tricistronic plasmid that expresses the CYP101 monooxygenase from Pseudomonas putida, and its physiological electron transfer co-factor proteins putidaredoxin reductase and putidaredoxin in Escherichia coli, giving a functional in vivo catalytic system. Wild-type CYP101 expressed in this system efficiently transforms camphor to 5-exo-hydroxycamphor without further oxidation to 5-oxo-camphor until >95% of camphor has been consumed. CYP101 mutants with increased activity for the oxidation of diphenylmethane (the Y96F-I395G mutant), styrene and ethylbenzene (the Y96F-V247L mutant) have been engineered. In particular, the Y96F-V247L mutant shows coupling efficiency of approximately 60% for styrene and ethylbenzene oxidation, with substrate oxidation rates of approximately 100/min. Escherichia coli cells transformed with tricistronic plasmids expressing these mutants readily gave 100-mg quantities of 4-hydroxydiphenylmethane and 1-phenylethanol in 24-72 h. This new in vivo system can be used for preparative scale reactions for product characterization, and will greatly facilitate directed evolution of the CYP101 enzyme for enhanced activity and selectivity of substrate oxidation

Mutations of glutamate-84 at the putative potassium-binding site affect camphor binding and oxidation by cytochrome p450cam.

Cytochrome P450cam (CYP101) from Pseudomonas putida is unusual among P450 enzymes in that it exhibits co-operative binding between the substrate camphor and a potassium ion. This behaviour has been investigated by mutagenesis of Glu84, a surface residue which forms part of the cation-binding site. Substitutions that neutralize or reverse the charge of this side chain are shown to disrupt the co-operativity of potassium and camphor binding by P450cam, and also to influence the catalytic activity. In particular, replacement of Glu84 by positively charged residues such as lysine results in increased high-spin haem fractions and camphor turnover activities in the absence of potassium, along with decreased camphor dissociation constants. However, in the presence of potassium the camphor dissociation constants of these mutants are significantly increased compared with the wild-type, although the camphor turnover activities remain marginally higher. In contrast, substitution by aspartate results in tighter binding of both potassium and camphor, but has little effect on the enzymatic activity. In all cases the reaction remains essentially 100% coupled and gives 5-exo-hydroxycamphor as the only product. These results suggest that an anionic side chain at the 84 position is crucial for the co-operativity of camphor and cation binding, and that the physiological role for potassium binding by cytochrome P450cam is to promote camphor binding even at the expense of turnover rate, thus allowing the organism to utilize low environmental concentrations of this substrate for growth

The catalytic activity of cytochrome P450cam towards styrene oxidation is increased by site-specific mutagenesis.

The styrene oxidation activity of cytochrome P450cam, has been greatly improved by rational protein engineering. Compared to the wild-type enzyme, the active-site mutants Y96A and Y96F bound styrene more tightly, consumed NADH more rapidly, and were more efficient at utilising reducing equivalents for product formation. Styrene oxide formation rates were enhanced 9-fold in the Y96A mutant relative to wild-type, and 25-fold in the Y96F mutant, thus demonstrating the effectiveness of active-site redesign in improving the activity of a haem monooxygenase towards an unnatural substrate

The oxidation of naphthalene and pyrene by cytochrome P450cam.

Mutants of the heme monooxygenase cytochrome P450cam in which Y96 had been replaced with hydrophobic residues, have been shown to oxidise naphthalene and pyrene with rates one to two orders of magnitude faster than the wild-type. Naphthalene was oxidised to 1- and 2-naphthol, probably via the 1,2-oxide intermediate. In the case of the Y96F mutant, naphthalene was oxidised at a rate comparable to camphor. Pyrene oxidation gave 1,6- and 1,8-pyrenequinone with no evidence for attack at the K-region, in contrast to mammalian enzymes. The results show that the Y96 residue plays a key role in controlling the substrate range of P450cam

Protein engineering of cytochrome p450(cam) (CYP101) for the oxidation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

Mutations of the active site residues F87 and Y96 greatly enhanced the activity of cytochrome P450(cam) (CYP101) from Pseudomonas putida for the oxidation of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons phenanthrene, fluoranthene, pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene. Wild-type P450(cam) had low (<0.01 min(-1)) activity with these substrates. Phenanthrene was oxidized to 1-, 2-, 3- and 4-phenanthrol, while fluoranthene gave mainly 3-fluoranthol. Pyrene was oxidized to 1-pyrenol and then to 1,6- and 1,8-pyrenequinone, with small amounts of 2-pyrenol also formed with the Y96A mutant. Benzo[a]pyrene gave 3-hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene as the major product. The NADH oxidation rate of the mutants with phenanthrene was as high as 374 min(-1), which was 31% of the camphor oxidation rate by wild-type P450(cam), and with fluoranthene the fastest rate was 144 min(-1). The oxidation of phenanthrene and fluoranthene were highly uncoupled, with highest couplings of 1.3 and 3.1%, respectively. The highest coupling efficiency for pyrene oxidation was a reasonable 23%, but the NADH turnover rate was slow. The product distributions varied significantly between mutants, suggesting that substrate binding orientations can be manipulated by protein engineering, and that genetic variants of P450(cam) may be useful for studying the oxidation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by P450 enzymes

Improving the affinity and activity of CYP101D2 for hydrophobic substrates

CYP101D2 is a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase from Novosphingobium aromaticivorans which is closely related to CYP101A1 (P450cam) from Pseudomonas putida. Both enzymes selectively hydroxylate camphor to 5-exo-hydroxycamphor, and the residues that line the active sites of both enzymes are similar including the pre-eminent Tyr96 residue. However, Met98 and Leu253 in CYP101D2 replace Phe98 and Val247 in CYP101A1, and camphor binding only results in a maximal change in the spin state to 40 % high-spin. Substitutions at Tyr96, Met98 and Leu253 in CYP101D2 reduced both the spin state shift on camphor binding and the camphor oxidation activity. The Tyr96Ala mutant increased the affinity of CYP101D2 for hydrocarbon substrates including adamantane, cyclooctane, hexane and 2-methylpentane. The monooxygenase activity of the Tyr96Ala variant towards alkane substrates was also enhanced compared with the wild-type enzyme. The crystal structure of the substrate-free form of this variant shows the enzyme in an open conformation (PDB: 4DXY), similar to that observed with the wild-type enzyme (PDB: 3NV5), with the side chain of Ala96 pointing away from the heme. Despite this, the binding and activity data suggest that this residue plays an important role in substrate binding, evidencing that the enzyme probably undergoes catalysis in a more closed conformation, similar to those observed in the crystal structures of CYP101A1 (PDB: 2CPP) and CYP101D1 (PDB: 3LXI).Stephen G. Bell, Wen Yang, Alison Dale, Weihong Zhou, Luet-Lok Won