Behavior and Impact of Zirconium in the Soil–Plant System: Plant Uptake and Phytotoxicity

Because of the large number of sites they pollute, toxic metals that contaminate terrestrial ecosystems are increasingly of environmental and sanitary concern (Uzu et al. 2010, 2011; Shahid et al. 2011a, b, 2012a). Among such metals is zirconium (Zr), which has the atomic number 40 and is a transition metal that resembles titanium in physical and chemical properties (Zaccone et al. 2008). Zr is widely used in many chemical industry processes and in nuclear reactors (Sandoval et al. 2011; Kamal et al. 2011), owing to its useful properties like hardness, corrosion-resistance and permeable to neutrons (Mushtaq 2012). Hence, the recent increased use of Zr by industry, and the occurrence of the Chernobyl and Fukashima catastrophe have enhanced environmental levels in soil and waters (Yirchenko and Agapkina 1993; Mosulishvili et al. 1994 ; Kruglov et al. 1996)

Sediments of the Moon and Earth as End-Members for Comparative Planetology

Processes of production, transport, deposition, lithification, and preservation of sediments of the Moon and Earth are extremely different. The differences arise primarily from the dissimilarity in the origins and sizes of the Moon and Earth. The consequence is that the Moon does not have an atmosphere, a hydrosphere (the Moon is totally dry), a biosphere (the Moon is totally life-less), a magnetosphere, and any tectonic force. Pristine rocks on the exposed surface of the Moon are principally anorthositic and basaltic, but those on the Earth are granitic (discounting suboceanic rocks). Sediments on these two bodies probably represent two end-members on rocky planetary bodies. Sediments on other rocky planetary bodies (atmosphere-free Mercury and asteroids, Venus with a thick atmosphere but possibly no water on its surface, and Mars with a currently dry surface sculptured by running water in the past) afe intermediate in character. New evidence suggests that characteristics of Martian sediments may be in-between those of the Moon and Earth. For example, impacts generate most Martian sediments as on the Moon, and, Martian sediments are wind-blown to form dunes as on Earth. A comparative understanding of sediments of the Moon and Earth helps us anticipate and interpret the sedimentary record of other planetary bodies. Impact processes, large and small, have produced the sediments of the Moon. Unlike Earth, the surface of the Moon is continuously bombarded by micrometeorites and solar wind. Processes of chemical and mechanical weathering aided by biological activity produce sediments on Earth, fixing a significant amount of carbon in the solid state. Whereas solar wind produces minor chemical changes in lunar sediments, chemical weathering significantly alters and affects the character of Earth sediments. Primarily ballistic and electrostatic forces transport lunar sediments but Earth sediments are transported by air, water, and ice. Whereas Earth sediments accumulate mostly in basins created slowly by tectonic forces, lunar sediments are deposited in craters (excavated instantaneously by impacts) or even on high grounds. Rubble, sand, mud, and carbonate material on Earth are lithified through burial, expulsion of water, and precipitation of cement from H2O-so1utions. In contrast, lunar sediments are lithified through presumably low-energy shock waves that sinter and bind clastic grains into regolith breccias. Surface processes and morphological features on the Moon are dominated by impact cratering and ejecta deposition, while those on Earth are sculptured by water, ice, and air. However, comparisons in two areas assist in planning planetary exploration. (l) Dust, i.e., small particles elevated above the solid surface of a planetary body, is ubiquitous on the Moon and Earth. The composition of dust is related to but is different from the source rocks, especially where dust is transported aver long distances as on Earth. Dust obscures observation of a planetary body and interferes with remote sensing; dust may also affect climate on planetary bodies with an atmosphere. (2) Because Earth's lithosphere has been recycled many times, sediments shed from rocks and regions that do not exist any more are the principal guides to the ancient Earth and its crustal evolution. Because the lunar surface is completely covered by regolith, and no bedrock has been directly observed or sampled, sediment is the principal guide to the lunar crust, past and presento Provenance analysis of lunar and terrestrial sediments is accomplished using the same methods and principles