Composition of LHB Comets and Their Influence on the Early Earth Atmosphere Composition

Two main processes were responsible for the composition of this atmosphere: chemical evolution of the volatile fraction of the accretion material forming the planet and the delivery of gasses to the planetary surface by impactors during the late heavy bombardment (LHB). The amount and composition of the volatile fraction influences the outgassing of the Earth mantle during the last planetary formation period. A very weakened form of outgassing activity can still be observed today by examining the composition of volcanic gasses. An enlightenment of the second process is based on the sparse records of the LHB impactors resulting from the composition of meteorites, observed cometary comas, and the impact material found on the Moon. However, for an assessment of the influence of the outgassing on the one hand and the LHB event on the other, one has to supplement the observations with numerical simulations of the formation of volatiles and their incorporation into the accretion material which is the precursors of planetary matter, comets and asteroids. These simulations are performed with a combined hydrodynamic-chemical model of the solar nebula (SN). We calculate the chemical composition of the gas and dust phase of the SN. From these data, we draw conclusions on the upper limits of the water content and the amount of carbon and nitrogen rich volatiles incorporated later into the accretion material. Knowing these limits we determine the portion of major gas compounds delivered during the LHB and compare it with the related quantities of the outgassed species

Dust crystallinity in protoplanetary disks: the effect of diffusion/viscosity ratio

The process of turbulent radial mixing in protoplanetary disks has strong relevance to the analysis of the spatial distribution of crystalline dust species in disks around young stars and to studies of the composition of meteorites and comets in our own solar system. A debate has gone on in the recent literature on the ratio of the effective viscosity coefficient $\nu$ (responsible for accretion) to the turbulent diffusion coefficient $D$ (responsible for mixing). Numerical magneto-hydrodynamic simulations have yielded values between $\nu/D\simeq 10$ (Carballido, Stone & Pringle, 2005) and $\nu/D\simeq 0.85$ (Johansen & Klahr, 2005}). Here we present two analytic arguments for the ratio $\nu/D=1/3$ which are based on elegant, though strongly simplified assumptions. We argue that whichever of these numbers comes closest to reality may be determined {\em observationally} by using spatially resolved mid-infrared measurements of protoplanetary disks around Herbig stars. If meridional flows are present in the disk, then we expect less abundance of crystalline dust in the surface layers, a prediction which can likewise be observationally tested with mid-infrared interferometers.Comment: 9 pages, 5 figures, accepted for publication in A&

The Soft X-ray Lightcurves of Partially Eclipsed Stellar Flares

Most stellar flares' soft X-ray lightcurves possess a `typical' morphology, which consists of a rapid rise followed by a slow exponential decay. However, a study of 216 of the brightest flares on 161 pre-main sequence stars, observed during the Chandra Orion-Ultradeep Project (COUP), showed that many flare lightcurves depart from this typical morphology. While this can be attributed to the superposition of multiple typical flares, we explore the possibility that the time-variable eclipsing of flares by their host stars may also be an important factor. We assume each flare is contained within a single, uniform plasma density magnetic loop and specify the intrinsic variation of the flare's emission measure with time. We consider rotational eclipse by the star itself, but also by circumstellar discs and flare-associated prominences. Based on this simple model, we generate a set of flares similar to those observed in the COUP database. Many eclipses simply reduce the flare's maximum emission measure or decay time. We conclude therefore that eclipses often pass undetected, but usually have only a modest influence on the flare emission measure profile and hence the derived loop lengths. We show that eclipsing can easily reproduce the observed atypical flare morphologies. The number of atypical modelled flare morphologies is however much less than that found in the COUP sample. The large number of observed atypical flare morphologies, therefore, must be attributed to other processes such as multiple flaring loops.Comment: 11 pages, 9 figure

Cardiac Autonomic Effects of Acute Exposures to Airborne Particulates in Men and Women

The aim of this research was to investigate cardiac autonomic changes associated with acute exposures to airborne particulates. Methods: High fidelity 12-lead ECG (CardioSoft, Houston, TX) was acquired from 19 (10 male / 9 female) non-smoking volunteers (age 33.6 +/- 6.6 yrs) during 10 minutes pre-exposure, exposure and post-exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), cooking oil fumes, wood smoke and sham (water vapor). To control exposure levels, noise, subject activity, and temperature, all studies were conducted inside an environmental chamber. Results: The short-term fractal scaling exponent (Alpha-1) and the ratio of low frequency to high frequency Heart Rate Variability (HRV) powers (LF/HF, a purported sympathetic index) were both higher in males (p<0.017 and p<0.05, respectively) whereas approximate entropy (ApEn) and HF/(LF+HF) (a purported parasympathetic index) were both lower in males (p<0.036, and p<0.044, respectively). Compared to pre-exposure (p<0.0002) and sham exposure (p<0.047), male heart rates were elevated during early ETS post-exposure. Our data suggest that, in addition to tonic HRV gender differences, cardiac responses to some acute airborne particulates are gender related

Chemistry in a gravitationally unstable protoplanetary disc

Until now, axisymmetric, alpha-disc models have been adopted for calculations of the chemical composition of protoplanetary discs. While this approach is reasonable for many discs, it is not appropriate when self-gravity is important. In this case, spiral waves and shocks cause temperature and density variations that affect the chemistry. We have adopted a dynamical model of a solar-mass star surrounded by a massive (0.39 Msun), self-gravitating disc, similar to those that may be found around Class 0 and early Class I protostars, in a study of disc chemistry. We find that for each of a number of species, e.g. H2O, adsorption and desorption dominate the changes in the gas-phase fractional abundance; because the desorption rates are very sensitive to temperature, maps of the emissions from such species should reveal the locations of shocks of varying strengths. The gas-phase fractional abundances of some other species, e.g. CS, are also affected by gas-phase reactions, particularly in warm shocked regions. We conclude that the dynamics of massive discs have a strong impact on how they appear when imaged in the emission lines of various molecular species.Comment: 10 figures and 3 tables, accepted for publication in MNRA

Dust amorphization in protoplanetary disks

High-energy irradiation of the circumstellar material might impact the structure and the composition of a protoplanetary disk and hence the process of planet formation. In this paper, we present a study on the possible influence of the stellar irradiation, indicated by X-ray emission, on the crystalline structure of the circumstellar dust. The dust crystallinity is measured for 42 class II T Tauri stars in the Taurus star-forming region using a decomposition fit of the 10 micron silicate feature, measured with the Spitzer IRS instrument. Since the sample includes objects with disks of various evolutionary stages, we further confine the target selection, using the age of the objects as a selection parameter. We correlate the X-ray luminosity and the X-ray hardness of the central object with the crystalline mass fraction of the circumstellar dust and find a significant anti-correlation for 20 objects within an age range of approx. 1 to 4.5 Myr. We postulate that X-rays represent the stellar activity and consequently the energetic ions of the stellar winds which interact with the circumstellar disk. We show that the fluxes around 1 AU and ion energies of the present solar wind are sufficient to amorphize the upper layer of dust grains very efficiently, leading to an observable reduction of the crystalline mass fraction of the circumstellar, sub-micron sized dust. This effect could also erase other relations between crystallinity and disk/star parameters such as age or spectral type.Comment: accepted for publication by A&

A representative particle approach to coagulation and fragmentation of dust aggregates and fluid droplets

Context: There is increasing need for good algorithms for modeling the aggregation and fragmentation of solid particles (dust grains, dust aggregates, boulders) in various astrophysical settings, including protoplanetary disks, planetary- and sub-stellar atmospheres and dense molecular cloud cores. Here we describe a new algorithm that combines advantages of various standard methods into one. Aims: The aim is to develop a method that 1) can solve for aggregation and fragmentation, 2) can easily include the effect and evolution of grain properties such as compactness, composition, etc., and 3) can be built as a coagulation/fragmentation module into a hydrodynamics simulations. Methods: We develop a Monte-Carlo method in which we follow the 'life' of a limited number of representative particles. Each of these particles is associated with a certain fraction of the total dust mass and thereby represents a large number of true particles which all are assumed to have the same properties as their representative particle. Under the assumption that the total number of true particles vastly exceeds the number of representative particles, the chance of a representative particle colliding with another representative particle is negligibly small, and we therefore ignore this possibility. This now makes it possible to employ a statistical approach to the evolution of the representative particles. Results: The method reproduces the known analytic solutions of simplified coagulation kernels, and compares well to numerical results for Brownian motion using other methods. For reasonably well-behaved kernels it produces good results even for moderate number of swarms.Comment: accepted for publication in A&

Magnetic fields in protoplanetary disks

Magnetic fields likely play a key role in the dynamics and evolution of protoplanetary discs. They have the potential to efficiently transport angular momentum by MHD turbulence or via the magnetocentrifugal acceleration of outflows from the disk surface, and magnetically-driven mixing has implications for disk chemistry and evolution of the grain population. However, the weak ionisation of protoplanetary discs means that magnetic fields may not be able to effectively couple to the matter. I present calculations of the ionisation equilibrium and magnetic diffusivity as a function of height from the disk midplane at radii of 1 and 5 AU. Dust grains tend to suppress magnetic coupling by soaking up electrons and ions from the gas phase and reducing the conductivity of the gas by many orders of magnitude. However, once grains have grown to a few microns in size their effect starts to wane and magnetic fields can begin to couple to the gas even at the disk midplane. Because ions are generally decoupled from the magnetic field by neutral collisions while electrons are not, the Hall effect tends to dominate the diffusion of the magnetic field when it is able to partially couple to the gas. For a standard population of 0.1 micron grains the active surface layers have a combined column of about 2 g/cm^2 at 1 AU; by the time grains have aggregated to 3 microns the active surface density is 80 g/cm^2. In the absence of grains, x-rays maintain magnetic coupling to 10% of the disk material at 1 AU (150 g/cm^2). At 5 AU the entire disk thickness becomes active once grains have aggregated to 1 micron in size.Comment: 11 pages, 11 figs, aastex.cls. Accepted for publication in Astrophysics & Space Science. v3 corrects bibliograph

Fossils, fish and tropical forests: prehistoric human adaptations on the island frontiers of Oceania

Oceania is a key region for studying human dispersals, adaptations and interactions with other hominin populations. Although archaeological evidence now reveals occupation of the region by approximately 65–45 000 years ago, its human fossil record, which has the best potential to provide direct insights into ecological adaptations and population relationships, has remained much more elusive. Here, we apply radiocarbon dating and stable isotope approaches to the earliest human remains so far excavated on the islands of Near and Remote Oceania to explore the chronology and diets of the first preserved human individuals to step across these Pacific frontiers. We demonstrate that the oldest human (or indeed hominin) fossil outside of the mainland New Guinea-Aru area dates to approximately 11 800 years ago. Furthermore, although these early sea-faring populations have been associated with a specialized coastal adaptation, we show that Late Pleistocene–Holocene humans living on islands in the Bismarck Archipelago and in Vanuatu display a persistent reliance on interior tropical forest resources. We argue that local tropical habitats, rather than purely coasts or, later, arriving domesticates, should be emphasized in discussions of human diets and cultural practices from the onset of our species' arrival in this part of the world.1. Introduction 2. Background (a) Human colonization of near and remote Oceania (b) Stable isotope analysis and past human adaptations in the tropics 3. Methods (a) Radiocarbon dating (b) Stable isotope analysis (c) Phytolith analysis of dental calculus 4. Results (a) Radiocarbon dating and Bayesian modelling (b) Stable isotope analysis (c) Phytolith analysis of dental calculus 5. Discussion and conclusio

The composition of the protosolar disk and the formation conditions for comets

Conditions in the protosolar nebula have left their mark in the composition of cometary volatiles, thought to be some of the most pristine material in the solar system. Cometary compositions represent the end point of processing that began in the parent molecular cloud core and continued through the collapse of that core to form the protosun and the solar nebula, and finally during the evolution of the solar nebula itself as the cometary bodies were accreting. Disentangling the effects of the various epochs on the final composition of a comet is complicated. But comets are not the only source of information about the solar nebula. Protostellar disks around young stars similar to the protosun provide a way of investigating the evolution of disks similar to the solar nebula while they are in the process of evolving to form their own solar systems. In this way we can learn about the physical and chemical conditions under which comets formed, and about the types of dynamical processing that shaped the solar system we see today. This paper summarizes some recent contributions to our understanding of both cometary volatiles and the composition, structure and evolution of protostellar disks.Comment: To appear in Space Science Reviews. The final publication is available at Springer via http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11214-015-0167-