A review of the ecology, palaeontology and distribution of atlantid heteropods (Caenogastropoda: Pterotracheoidea: Atlantidae)

Fewer than 1% of marine gastropod species live a holoplanktic life. Of these, the shelled heteropods of the family Atlantidae are among the most poorly understood. The atlantids potentially make up an important part of the ocean zooplankton, composing up to 69% of shelled holoplanktic gastropods in the Late Pleistocene to Recent fossil record. They are also likely to be at high risk from current and future global changes, including anthropogenic ocean acidification. However, due to their small size (<12 mm), difficulty of sampling and complicated morphology, we still lack key information about atlantid taxonomy and ecology. This makes it difficult to understand how important they are in the ocean foodweb and how they will be affected by environmental change. Although many studies have been carried out on the atlantids, these have generally been broad and unconnected. Here, we draw together this previous research, summarizing what is currently known about atlantid taxonomy, palaeontology, ecology and biogeography, and aiming to provide a foundation for future research on this group. The data indicate complex behaviours involving seasonal and vertical migration, and demonstrate extended geographical ranges, with implications for understanding the role of atlantids in the ocean foodweb and their sensitivity to environmental changes. This review highlights the urgent need for further taxonomic research on the atlantids, including molecular analysis, and for improved sampling techniques

Punicic Acid a Conjugated Linolenic Acid Inhibits TNFα-Induced Neutrophil Hyperactivation and Protects from Experimental Colon Inflammation in Rats

BACKGROUND:Neutrophils play a major role in inflammation by releasing large amounts of ROS produced by NADPH-oxidase and myeloperoxidase (MPO). The proinflammatory cytokine TNFalpha primes ROS production through phosphorylation of the NADPH-oxidase subunit p47phox on Ser345. Conventional anti-inflammatory therapies remain partially successful and may have side effects. Therefore, regulation of neutrophil activation by natural dietary components represents an alternative therapeutic strategy in inflammatory diseases such as inflammatory bowel diseases. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of punicic acid, a conjugated linolenic fatty acid from pomegranate seed oil on TNFalpha-induced neutrophil hyperactivation in vitro and on colon inflammation in vivo. METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS:We analyzed the effect of punicic acid on TNFalpha-induced neutrophil upregulation of ROS production in vitro and on TNBS-induced rat colon inflammation. Results show that punicic acid inhibited TNFalpha-induced priming of ROS production in vitro while preserving formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP)-induced response. This effect was mediated by the inhibition of Ser345-p47phox phosphorylation and upstream kinase p38MAPK. Punicic acid also inhibited fMLP- and TNFalpha+fMLP-induced MPO extracellular release from neutrophils. In vivo experiments showed that punicic acid and pomegranate seed oil intake decreased neutrophil-activation and ROS/MPO-mediated tissue damage as measured by F2-isoprostane release and protected rats from TNBS-induced colon inflammation. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE:These data show that punicic acid exerts a potent anti-inflammatory effect through inhibition of TNFalpha-induced priming of NADPH oxidase by targeting the p38MAPKinase/Ser345-p47phox-axis and MPO release. This natural dietary compound may provide a novel alternative therapeutic strategy in inflammatory diseases such as inflammatory bowel diseases