Maternal mind-mindedness during infancy, general parenting sensitivity and observed child feeding behavior:a longitudinal study

Maternal mind-mindedness, or the tendency to view the child as a mental agent, has been shown to predict sensitive and responsive parenting behavior. As yet the role of mind-mindedness has not been explored in the context of feeding interactions. This study evaluates the relations between maternal mind-mindedness at 6 months of infant age and subsequently observed maternal sensitivity and feeding behaviors with children at age 1 year. Maternal mind-mindedness was greater in mothers who had breast-fed compared to formula-fed. Controlling for breast-feeding, mind-mindedness at 6 months was correlated with observations of more sensitive and positive feeding behaviors at 1 year of age. Mind-mindedness was also associated with greater general maternal sensitivity in play and this general parenting sensitivity mediated the effect of mind-mindedness on more sensitive and positive feeding behaviors. Interventions to promote maternal tendency to consider their child's mental states may encourage more adaptive parental feeding behaviors

Infant temperament, maternal feeding behaviours and the timing of solid food introduction:The contribution of infant temperament and maternal feeding behaviours

Despite guidance from the World Health Organization and the U.K. Department of Health, many mothers introduce solid food before their infant is 6 months old. The current study aimed to investigate relationships between maternal feeding behaviours (preintroduction and postintroduction to solids), infant temperament, and the timing of introduction to solid food. Eighty-one women were recruited on low-risk maternity units and were contacted at 1 week, 3, and 6 months postpartum. Mothers of infants (45 males, 36 females, mean birth weight 3.52 kg [SD 0.39]) completed the behaviours component of the Infant Feeding Style Questionnaire via telephone interview at 3 months. At 6 months, they were observed feeding their infant solid food at home and reported infant temperament using the Infant Behaviour Questionnaire-Revised (short form). Partial correlations (covariates: birth weight, maternal age, breastfeeding duration, and postnatal depression) revealed negative associations between age of introduction to solid food and temperament (smiling and laughter) and laissez-faire milk feeding behaviours; and positive associations between age of introduction to solid food and restrictive milk feeding behaviours and verbal involvement during an observed mealtime. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed that an infant's birth weight and the degree to which their mothers perceive them to smile and laugh are key predictors of when they will be introduced to solid food, over and above other variables of interest (e.g., maternal milk feeding behaviours, breastfeeding duration, and postnatal depression)

Breastfeeding duration and its relation to weight gain, eating behaviours and positive maternal feeding practices in infancy

Research examining the relationship between breastfeeding and infant weight has generated conflicting results. Few studies account for significant covariates and many suffer methodological problems such as retrospective self-report. The current study aimed to investigate relationships between breastfeeding duration, infant weight and eating and positive maternal mealtime behaviours, whilst overcoming many of the limitations of previous research. Eighty-one women on low-risk maternity units gave informed consent and were visited at home at 1-week, 1-, 6- and 12-months postpartum. Infants included 45 males and 36 females (mean birth-weight 3.52 kg [SD 0.39]). Mothers and infants were weighed and measured and feeding information was recorded at each visit. Infant weight was converted to a standard deviation score (SDS), accounting for age and sex. Mothers reported infant eating behaviours at 12-months using the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire and were observed feeding their infants solid food at home at 6- and 12-months. Partial correlations (covariates: maternal age, education, BMI, smoking during pregnancy, household income, infant birth weight SDS and age introduced to solid foods) revealed negative associations between breastfeeding duration and 1- to 6- and 1- to 12-month weight gain, and 6- and 12-month weight. Breastfeeding duration was also associated with a slower rate of infant eating and greater observed maternal vocalisations, appropriateness and sensitivity. Results support a dose-response relationship between breastfeeding and infant weight and suggest that breastfeeding may encourage the development of obesity-protective eating behaviours through learning to attend to internal hunger and satiety signals. Future research should investigate whether relationships between slowness in eating and weight extend to satiety responsiveness after infancy

The Montreal Children’s Hospital Feeding Scale:relationships with parental report of child eating behaviours and observed feeding interactions

Feeding problems are common, with implications for nutrition, growth and family stress, placing burden on primary care services. The Montreal Children's Hospital Feeding Scale (MCHFS) is a quick and reliable measure of feeding problems for clinical settings, but there is little examination of its relationship to commonly used research measures of parental feeding practice, child eating behaviour and observations of parent-infant interaction at mealtimes. We examined the relationships between the MCHFS, demographics and early feeding history, weight across the first year, parental report of feeding practices and child eating behaviours, and observations of maternal-infant feeding interaction at 1 year. The MCHFS, Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ) and Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ) were completed by 69 mothers when their infants were 1-year-old (37 male, 32 female). Infant weight was measured at 1 week, 1 month, 6 months and 1 year. Mothers were observed feeding their infants at 1 year. The MCHFS was reliable (Cronbach's alpha = .90) and showed significant overlap with other measures of feeding and eating. Potential feeding problems were identified in 10 of the children (14%) reflecting similar rates in other community samples. Higher MCHFS scores were associated with lower birthweight and weight across the first year, greater satiety responsiveness, fussiness and slowness in eating, lower enjoyment of food and food responsiveness, and less observed infant food acceptance. Parents of infants with more feeding problems reported less encouragement of balance and variety in their children's diets. Conclusion: MCHFS showed good criterion validity with other parental report measures of eating and observations of mealtime interactions. MCHFS may be a useful tool for researching feeding problems in community samples

Social influences on eating: implications for nutritional interventions

We review recent research on the effect of social context on food intake and food choice and assess the implications for nutritional interventions. We focus on studies of modelling of eating behaviour and the impact of perceived eating norms on the amounts and types of food that individuals eat. We suggest that social context influences eating via multiple mechanisms, including identity signalling and self-presentation concerns. However, building on existing theoretical models, we propose that social factors may be particularly influential on nutrition because following the behaviour of others is adaptive and social norms inform individuals about behaviours that are likely to be optimal (‘if everyone else is doing it, I probably should be’). Guided by understanding of the potential underlying mechanisms, we discuss how social norms might be used to promote healthier nutrition

Maternal symptoms of depression are related to observations of controlling feeding practices in mothers of young children

Maternal depression can impair parenting practices and has been linked with less sensitive feeding interactions with children, but existing research is based on self-reports of feeding practices. This study examined relationships between maternal self-reported symptoms of depression with observations of mothers' child feeding practices during a mealtime. Fifty-eight mothers of 3-and 4-year-old children were video recorded eating a standardized lunch. The recording was then coded for instances of maternal controlling feeding practices and maternal vocalizations using the Family Mealtime Coding System. Mothers also provided information on current symptoms of depression and anxiety. Mothers who reported greater symptoms of depression were observed to use more verbal and physical pressure for their child to eat and to offer more incentives or conditions in exchange for their child eating. Mothers also used more vocalizations with their child about food during the observed mealtime when they had greater symptoms of depression. There was no link between symptoms of depression and observations of maternal use of restriction. Symptoms of depression are linked with observations of mothers implementing a more controlling, less sensitive feeding style with their child. Health professionals working with families in which mothers have symptoms of depression may benefit from receiving training about the possible impact of maternal depression on child-feeding practices, and mothers with symptoms of depression may benefit from guidance regarding its potential impact on their child-feeding interaction

Interactive effects of impulsivity and dietary restraint over snack intake in children

Impulsivity and dietary restraint have been found to interact to affect dietary intake in adults. Few studies have explored this effect in children. The current study therefore aimed to investigate the interactive effects of behavioural impulsivity and dietary restraint on intake. Fifty 7-11-year-olds participated in this laboratory-based study. Impulsivity was assessed through behavioural tasks measuring a number of impulsivity facets. Children self-reported dietary restraint. Children visited the lab and had access to a range of snack foods; intake was recorded. Hunger at arrival was assessed. A series of 2 x 2 between-subjects ANCOVAs indicated that motor impulsivity and dietary restraint interacted to affect intake. Reward sensitivity, delay of gratification and inhibitory control did not interact with dietary restraint. Post-hoc analyses indicated that children high in motor impulsivity and restraint ate significantly more snacks than restrained children low in motor impulsivity. Furthermore, children low in motor impulsivity but high in dietary restraint were better at inhibiting their intake than children low in impulsivity and dietary restraint. The results indicate that high levels of impulsivity or dietary restraint in isolation do not affect children's dietary intake but that their combination may lead to overeating in food rich environments

Pilot of ‘Families for Health’ : community-based family intervention for obesity

Objective - To develop and evaluate ‘Families for Health’ - a new community based family intervention for childhood obesity. Design – Programme development, pilot study and evaluation using intention-to-treat analysis. Setting – Coventry, England Participants – 27 overweight or obese children aged 7-13 years (18 girls, 9 boys) and their parents, from 21 families. Intervention – ‘Families for Health’ is a 12 week programme with parallel groups for parents and children, addressing parenting, lifestyle change and social & emotional development. Main Outcome Measures – Primary: change in baseline BMI z-score at end of programme (3 months) and 9 month follow-up. Attendance, drop-out, parents’ perception of programme, child’s quality of life and self esteem, parental mental health, parent-child relationships and lifestyle changes were also measured. Results: Attendance rate was 62%, with 18 of the 27 (67%) children completing the programme. For the 22 children with follow-up data (including 4 drop-outs), BMI z-score was reduced by -0.18 (95%CI -0.30 to -0.05) at end of programme and by -0.21 (-0.35 to -0.07) at 9 months. Statistically significant improvements were observed in children’s quality of life and lifestyle (reduced sedentary behaviour, increased steps and reduced exposure to unhealthy foods), child-parent relationships and parents’ mental health. Fruit and vegetable consumption, participation in moderate/vigorous exercise and children’s self-esteem did not change significantly. Topics on parenting skills, activity and food were rated as helpful and were used with confidence by the majority of parents. Conclusions Families for Health is a promising new childhood obesity intervention. Definitive evaluation of its clinical effectiveness by randomised controlled trial is now required

Relationships between temperament and eating behaviours in young children

This study examined the associations between eating behaviours and temperament in a sample of young children. Mothers (N=241) of children aged 3-8 years completed measures of their children's eating behaviours and temperament and reported their child's height and weight. Children with more emotional temperaments were reported to display more food avoidant eating behaviours. Shyness, sociability and activity were not related to children's eating behaviours. Higher child BMI was related to more food approach eating behaviours but BMI was unrelated to child temperament. Future research should explore more specifically how emotional temperaments might influence child eating behaviour