The Complete Plastid Genomes of the Two ‘Dinotoms’ Durinskia baltica and Kryptoperidinium foliaceum

In one small group of dinoflagellates, photosynthesis is carried out by a tertiary endosymbiont derived from a diatom, giving rise to a complex cell that we collectively refer to as a 'dinotom'. The endosymbiont is separated from its host by a single membrane and retains plastids, mitochondria, a large nucleus, and many other eukaryotic organelles and structures, a level of complexity suggesting an early stage of integration. Although the evolution of these endosymbionts has attracted considerable interest, the plastid genome has not been examined in detail, and indeed no tertiary plastid genome has yet been sequenced.Here we describe the complete plastid genomes of two closely related dinotoms, Durinskia baltica and Kryptoperidinium foliaceum. The D. baltica (116470 bp) and K. foliaceum (140426 bp) plastid genomes map as circular molecules featuring two large inverted repeats that separate distinct single copy regions. The organization and gene content of the D. baltica plastid closely resemble those of the pennate diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. The K. foliaceum plastid genome is much larger, has undergone more reorganization, and encodes a putative tyrosine recombinase (tyrC) also found in the plastid genome of the heterokont Heterosigma akashiwo, and two putative serine recombinases (serC1 and serC2) homologous to recombinases encoded by plasmids pCf1 and pCf2 in another pennate diatom, Cylindrotheca fusiformis. The K. foliaceum plastid genome also contains an additional copy of serC1, two degenerate copies of another plasmid-encoded ORF, and two non-coding regions whose sequences closely resemble portions of the pCf1 and pCf2 plasmids.These results suggest that while the plastid genomes of two dinotoms share very similar gene content and genome organization with that of the free-living pennate diatom P. tricornutum, the K. folicaeum plastid genome has absorbed two exogenous plasmids. Whether this took place before or after the tertiary endosymbiosis is not clear

Evidence for the Retention of Two Evolutionary Distinct Plastids in Dinoflagellates with Diatom Endosymbionts

Dinoflagellates harboring diatom endosymbionts (termed “dinotoms”) have undergone a process often referred to as “tertiary endosymbiosis”—the uptake of algae containing secondary plastids and integration of those plastids into the new host. In contrast to other tertiary plastids, and most secondary plastids, the endosymbiont of dinotoms is distinctly less reduced, retaining a number of cellular features, such as their nucleus and mitochondria and others, in addition to their plastid. This has resulted in redundancy between host and endosymbiont, at least between some mitochondrial and cytosolic metabolism, where this has been investigated. The question of plastidial redundancy is particularly interesting as the fate of the host dinoflagellate plastid is unclear. The host cytosol possesses an eyespot that has been postulated to be a remnant of the ancestral peridinin plastid, but this has not been tested, nor has its possible retention of plastid functions. To investigate this possibility, we searched for plastid-associated pathways and functions in transcriptomic data sets from three dinotom species. We show that the dinoflagellate host has indeed retained genes for plastid-associated pathways and that these genes encode targeting peptides similar to those of other dinoflagellate plastid-targeted proteins. Moreover, we also identified one gene encoding an essential component of the dinoflagellate plastid protein import machinery, altogether suggesting the presence of a functioning plastid import system in the host, and by extension a relict plastid. The presence of the same plastid-associated pathways in the endosymbiont also extends the known functional redundancy in dinotoms, further confirming the unusual state of plastid integration in this group of dinoflagellates

Endosymbiotic Gene Transfer in Tertiary Plastid-Containing Dinoflagellates

Plastid establishment involves the transfer of endosymbiotic genes to the host nucleus, a process known as endosymbiotic gene transfer (EGT). Large amounts of EGT have been shown in several photosynthetic lineages but also in present-day plastid-lacking organisms, supporting the notion that endosymbiotic genes leave a substantial genetic footprint in the host nucleus. Yet the extent of this genetic relocation remains debated, largely because the long period that has passed since most plastids originated has erased many of the clues to how this process unfolded. Among the dinoflagellates, however, the ancestral peridinin-containing plastid has been replaced by tertiary plastids on several more recent occasions, giving us a less ancient window to examine plastid origins. In this study, we evaluated the endosymbiotic contribution to the host genome in two dinoflagellate lineages with tertiary plastids. We generated the first nuclear transcriptome data sets for the “dinotoms,” which harbor diatom-derived plastids, and analyzed these data in combination with the available transcriptomes for kareniaceans, which harbor haptophyte-derived plastids. We found low level of detectable EGT in both dinoflagellate lineages, with only 9 genes and 90 genes of possible tertiary endosymbiotic origin in dinotoms and kareniaceans, respectively, suggesting that tertiary endosymbioses did not heavily impact the host dinoflagellate genomes

A genomic survey of two dinotoms

Endosymbiosis has played a major role in shaping eukaryotic cells, their success and diversity. At the base of the eukaryotic tree, an α-proteobacterium endosymbiont in a protoeukaryotic cell was converted into the mitochondrion through its reductive evolution, endosymbiotic gene transfer (EGT) and the development of a protein targeting system to direct the products of the transferred genes to this organelle. Similar events mark the plastid evolution from a cyanobacterium. However, the primary endosymbiosis of plastid, unlike the mitochondrion, was followed by the secondary and tertiary movement of this organelle between eukaryotes through analogous endosymbiotic reduction, EGT and evolution of a protein targeting system and many subsequent independent losses from different eukaryotic lineages. The obligate tertiary diatom endosymbiont in a small group of dinoflagellates called ‘dinotoms’ is exceptional in that it retains most of its ancestral characters including a large nucleus, its own mitochondria, plastids and many other eukaryotic organelles and structures in a large cytoplasm all enclosed in and separated from its dinoflagellate host by a single membrane. This level of conservation of ancestral features in the endosymbiont suggests an early stage of integration. In order to investigate the impacts of endosymbiosis on the organelle genomes and to determine the extent of EGT and the contribution of the host nuclear genome to the proteomes of the organelles, I conducted mass pyrosequencing of the A+T-rich portion of the DNA extracted from two dinotoms, Durinskia baltica and Kryptoperidinium foliaceum, and the SL cDNA library constructed for D. baltica. The plastid and mitochondrial genomes of these two dinotoms were sequenced, and the results indicated that, despite the permanent symbiosis between the host and its endosymbiont in dinotoms and in spite of small variations, the dinotom organelle genomes have changed very little from those of free-living diatoms and dinoflagellates. There was also no sign of EGT to the host in D. baltica, suggesting a strict compartmentalization in which the host mitochondria remain reliant on the host nucleus while the endosymbiont organelles, mitochondria and plastids, stay entirely dependent on the endosymbiont nucleus with no genetic exchange between the host and endosymbiont.Science, Faculty ofBotany, Department ofGraduat

Mitochondria in a tertiary endosymbiont

Mitochondria and plastids originated through endosymbiosis, and subsequently became reduced and integrated with the host in similar ways. Plastids spread between lineages through further secondary or even tertiary endosymbioses, but mitochondria appear to have originated once and have not spread between lineages. Mitochondria are also generally lost in secondary and tertiary endosymbionts, with the single exception of the diatom tertiary endosymbiont of dinoflagellates like Kryptoperidinium foliaceum, where both host and endosymbiont are reported to contain mitochondria. Here, I describe the first mitochondrial genes from this system: cytochrome c oxidase 1 (coxl), cytochrome oxidase 3 (cox3), and cytochrome b (cob). Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that all characterized genes were derived from the pennate diatom endosymbiont, and not the host. I also demonstrated that all three genes are expressed, that coxl contains spliced group II introns, and that cob and cox3 form an operon, all like their diatom relatives. The endosymbiont mitochondria not only retain a genome, but also express their genes, and are therefore likely involved in electron transport. Ultrastructural examination confirmed that the endosymbiont mitochondria retain normal tubular cristae. Overall, these data suggest the endosymbiont mitochondria have not reduced at the genomic or functional level.Medicine, Faculty ofMedical Genetics, Department ofGraduat

The Light Chain Domain and Especially the C-Terminus of Receptor-Binding Domain of the Botulinum Neurotoxin (BoNT) Are the Hotspots for Amino Acid Variability and Toxin Type Diversity

Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNT) are the most potent toxins in the world. They are produced by a few dozens of strains within several clostridial species. The toxin that they produce can cause botulism, a flaccid paralysis in humans and other animals. With seven established serologically different types and over 40 subtypes, BoNTs are among the most diverse known toxins. The toxin, its structure, its function and its physiological effects on the neural cell and animal hosts along with its diversity have been the subjects of numerous studies. However, many gaps remain in our knowledge about the BoNT toxin and the species that produce them. One of these gaps involves the distribution and extent of variability along the full length of the gene and the protein as well as its domains and subdomains. In this study, we performed an extensive analysis of all of the available 143 unique BoNT-encoding genes and their products, and we investigated their diversity and evolution. Our results indicate that while the nucleotide variability is almost uniformly distributed along the entire length of the gene, the amino acid variability is not. We found that most of the differences were concentrated along the protein’s light chain (LC) domain and especially, the C-terminus of the receptor-binding domain (HCC). These two regions of the protein are thus identified as the main source of the toxin type differentiation, and consequently, this toxin’s versatility to bind different receptors and their isoforms and act upon different substrates, thus infecting different hosts

The dinoflagellates and retain functionally overlapping mitochondria from two evolutionarily distinct lineages-3

<p><b>Copyright information:</b></p><p>Taken from "The dinoflagellates and retain functionally overlapping mitochondria from two evolutionarily distinct lineages"</p><p>http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/7/172</p><p>BMC Evolutionary Biology 2007;7():172-172.</p><p>Published online 24 Sep 2007</p><p>PMCID:PMC2096628.</p><p></p>h (-) indicates support less than 50%. Major groups are labeled to the right, with diatoms (red) and dinoflagellates (purple) indicated by a box and and genes in black

The dinoflagellates Durinskia baltica and Kryptoperidinium foliaceum retain functionally overlapping mitochondria from two evolutionarily distinct lineages

Background: The dinoflagellates Durinskia baltica and Kryptoperidinium foliaceum are distinguished by the presence of a tertiary plastid derived from a diatom endosymbiont. The diatom is fully integrated with the host cell cycle and is so altered in structure as to be difficult to recognize it as a diatom, and yet it retains a number of features normally lost in tertiary and secondary endosymbionts, most notably mitochondria. The dinoflagellate host is also reported to retain mitochondrion-like structures, making these cells unique in retaining two evolutionarily distinct mitochondria. This redundancy raises the question of whether the organelles share any functions in common or have distributed functions between them. Results: We show that both host and endosymbiont mitochondrial genomes encode genes for electron transport proteins. We have characterized cytochrome c oxidase 1 (cox1), cytochrome oxidase 2 (cox2), cytochrome oxidase 3 (cox3), cytochrome b (cob), and large subunit of ribosomal RNA (LSUrRNA) of endosymbiont mitochondrial ancestry, and cox1 and cob of host mitochondrial ancestry. We show that all genes are transcribed and that those ascribed to the host mitochondrial genome are extensively edited at the RNA level, as expected for a dinoflagellate mitochondrion-encoded gene. We also found evidence for extensive recombination in the host mitochondrial genes and that recombination products are also transcribed, as expected for a dinoflagellate. Conclusion: Durinskia baltica and K. foliaceum retain two mitochondria from evolutionarily distinct lineages, and the functions of these organelles are at least partially overlapping, since both express genes for proteins in electron transport.Botany, Department ofScience, Faculty ofNon UBCReviewedFacult

The dinoflagellates and retain functionally overlapping mitochondria from two evolutionarily distinct lineages-7

<p><b>Copyright information:</b></p><p>Taken from "The dinoflagellates and retain functionally overlapping mitochondria from two evolutionarily distinct lineages"</p><p>http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/7/172</p><p>BMC Evolutionary Biology 2007;7():172-172.</p><p>Published online 24 Sep 2007</p><p>PMCID:PMC2096628.</p><p></p>h (-) indicates support less than 50%. Major groups are labeled to the right, with diatoms (red) and dinoflagellates (purple) indicated by a box and and genes in black

The dinoflagellates and retain functionally overlapping mitochondria from two evolutionarily distinct lineages-8

<p><b>Copyright information:</b></p><p>Taken from "The dinoflagellates and retain functionally overlapping mitochondria from two evolutionarily distinct lineages"</p><p>http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/7/172</p><p>BMC Evolutionary Biology 2007;7():172-172.</p><p>Published online 24 Sep 2007</p><p>PMCID:PMC2096628.</p><p></p>h (-) indicates support less than 50%. Major groups are labeled to the right, with diatoms (red) and dinoflagellates (purple) indicated by a box and and genes in black