Dmdmdx/Largemyd: a new mouse model of neuromuscular diseases useful for studying physiopathological mechanisms and testing therapies

Although muscular dystrophies are among the most common human genetic disorders, there are few treatment options available. Animal models have become increasingly important for testing new therapies prior to entering human clinical trials. The Dmdmdx mouse is the most widely used animal model for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), presenting the same molecular and protein defect as seen in humans with the disease. However, this mouse is not useful for clinical trials because of its very mild phenotype. The mouse model for congenital myodystrophy type 1D, Largemyd, harbors a mutation in the glycosyltransferase Large gene and displays a severe phenotype. To help elucidate the role of the proteins dystrophin and LARGE in the organization of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex in muscle sarcolemma, we generated double-mutant mice for the dystrophin and LARGE proteins. The new Dmdmdx/Largemyd mouse model is viable and shows a severe phenotype that is associated with the lack of dystrophin in muscle. We tested the usefulness of our new mouse model for cell therapy by systemically injecting them with normal murine mesenchymal adipose stem cells (mASCs). We verified that the mASCs were hosted in the dystrophic muscle. The new mouse model has proven to be very useful for the study of several other therapies, because injected cells can be screened both through DNA and protein analysis. Study of its substantial muscle weakness will also be very informative in the evaluation of functional benefits of these therapies.FAPESP - CEPIDInstituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Células-Tronco e Terapia Celular (INCTC) - CNPqFINEPABDIMCAPES / COFECU

Global variability in leaf respiration in relation to climate, plant functional types and leaf traits

• Leaf dark respiration (Rdark) is an important yet poorly quantified component of the global carbon cycle. Given this, we analyzed a new global database of Rdark and associated leaf traits. • Data for 899 species were compiled from 100 sites (from the Arctic to the tropics). Several woody and nonwoody plant functional types (PFTs) were represented. Mixed-effects models were used to disentangle sources of variation in Rdark. • Area-based Rdark at the prevailing average daily growth temperature (T) of each site increased only twofold from the Arctic to the tropics, despite a 20°C increase in growing T (8–28°C). By contrast, Rdark at a standard T (25°C, Rdark25) was threefold higher in the Arctic than in the tropics, and twofold higher at arid than at mesic sites. Species and PFTs at cold sites exhibited higher Rdark25 at a given photosynthetic capacity (Vcmax25) or leaf nitrogen concentration ([N]) than species at warmer sites. Rdark25 values at any given Vcmax25 or [N] were higher in herbs than in woody plants. • The results highlight variation in Rdark among species and across global gradients in T and aridity. In addition to their ecological significance, the results provide a framework for improving representation of Rdark in terrestrial biosphere models (TBMs) and associated land-surface components of Earth system models (ESMs)

Expression analysis of α-dystroglycan glycosyltranferases in human and murine muscular dystrophies

As Distrofias Musculares Progressivas constituem um grupo heterogêneo de doenças genéticas caracterizadas por uma degeneração progressiva e irreversível da musculatura esquelética. Recentemente, associaram-se defeitos do mecanismo de glicosilação da proteína α-DG com diversos tipos de distrofias musculares graves. Alterações nesse processo constituem, portanto um novo mecanismo patogenético nas doenças neuromusculares, abrindo novas possibilidades de estudo. Neste sentido, foram objetivos deste trabalho avaliar o perfil de expressão dos genes envolvidos na glicosilação da proteína α-DG em modelos murinos e em pacientes, e tentar relacionar com os diferentes processos distróficos. Verificamos que tanto camundongos normais como distróficos expressam os genes codificantes das glicosiltransferases na seguinte ordem: Pomgnt1>Large>Fkrp>Pomt1, em todas as idades e em todas as linhagens estudadas, sugerindo um mecanismo constante de regulação gênica, independente do crescimento, envelhecimento ou processo distrófico. Também observamos que a sua expressão não é influenciada pelo processo de degeneração/regeneração, uma vez que não houve concordância entre os animais com músculos mais afetados e degenerados (Largemyd e Lama2dy2J/J) e aqueles com músculos menos degenerados (Dmdmdx e SJL/J), e esse padrão se mantém quando se comparam músculos com graus de degeneração diferentes. Nos animais recém-nascidos, verificou-se um aumento de expressão significativo nas linhagens Dmdmdx e Largemyd e uma queda nas linhagens Lama2dy2J/J e SJL/J. Já nos animais adultos, verificou-se maior semelhança ao perfil dos camundongos controles normais da mesma idade, com exceção do gene Large que apresentou expressão diminuída em quase todos os animais em estudo. No músculo humano, observamos uma ordem do nível de expressão diferente do observado em camundongos, com POMT1>POMGnT1>FKRP>LARGE. Os pacientes com DMD apresentaram um aumento da expressão de todos os genes estudados, de forma similar ao observado no grupo de camundongos Dmdmdx recém-nascidos, sugerindo uma associação com a falta de distrofina. Os pacientes LGMD 2I não apresentaram redução significativa da expressão de FKRP, sugerindo que o processo de transcrição é normal, mas a tradução ou a função/atividade da enzima deve estar comprometida. Nos pacientes CMD 1A, onde a deficiência primária da α2-laminina não está associada a defeito de glicosilação da α-DG, observou-se redução na expressão de POMT1 e FKRP, sugerindo que, a deficiência dessas enzimas possivelmente não altera este processo. Na análise de proteínas, não se observou uma correlação direta com os resultados da expressão gênica das glicosiltrasferases, sugerindo mais uma vez que, por serem enzimas, essas proteínas funcionam de forma diferenciada quando comparadas a proteínas estruturais. Entretanto, nas reações com os anticorpos Anti-POMT1 e Anti-FKRP, os camundongos recém-nascidos apresentaram bandas adicionais de peso molecular maior, sugerindo que essas enzimas estão ligadas a outras proteínas ou entre si nos estágios iniciais de desenvolvimento muscularMuscular Dystrophies (MD) are a heterogeneous group of genetic diseases characterized by progressive and irreversible degeneration of skeletal muscle. Recently, defects in α-DG glycosylation have been associated with different types of severe forms of muscular dystrophies. Therefore, alteration in this mechanism has been considered an important pathogenetic cause of muscle degeneration, opening new avenues for therapies. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the expression cascade of genes involved in the glycosylation of α-DG in murine models and in patients with different molecular defects causing MD. We found that both normal and dystrophic mice express the glycosyltransferases genes in the following quantitative order: Pomgnt1>Large>Fkrp>Pomt1, in all ages and in all studied strains, suggesting a constant mechanism of gene regulation, independent of growth, aging or dystrophic process. We also observed that this pattern of expression is not related to the degeneration/regeneration process, since there was no concordance between the animals with the most degenerated muscles (Largemyd and Lama2dy2J/J) or the less degenerated muscles (Dmdmdx and SJL/J). Additionally, both gastrocnemius (less degenerated in Dmdmdx) and diaphragm (more degenerated in Dmdmdx) presented the same pattern of expression. In newborn animals, a significant increased expression was observed in Dmdmdx and Largemyd and a decrease in Lama2dy2J/J and SJL/J. In adult animals, the expression profile of Pomt1, Pomgnt1 and Fkrp was similar in normal and affected mice, while Large showed a decreased expression in almost all affected animals. In human muscle, the quantitative order of expression of the 4 genes was: POMT1>POMGnT1>FKRP>LARGE, different from the mice. DMD patients showed an increased expression of all the studied genes, in a pattern similar as the observed in the newborns group of the murine Dmdmdx model, suggesting an association with the lack of protein dystrophin. LGMD 2I patients showed no significant reduction in FKRP expression, indicating a normal transcriptional process. In CMD 1A patients, there was a reduction in POMT1 and FKRP expression, in spite of a normal α-DG glycosylation observed in this disease, suggesting that the deficiency of these enzymes may not alter this process. At the protein level, we did not observe a direct correlation between protein quantities of glicosiltrasferases and gene expression, suggesting that enzymes regulation functions differently as compared with structural proteins. Interestingly, antibodies for POMT1 and FKRP detected, in newborn mice, additional bands of higher molecular weight, suggesting that these enzymes are linked to each other or with other proteins in the early stages of muscle developmen

Study of therapeutic potencial of of mesenchymal and embryonary stem cells in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy murine model

Neste trabalho verificou-se o potencial terapêutico de células tronco murinas mesenquimais e embrionárias no tratamento da Distrofia Muscular de Duchenne. A sua capacidade de regenerar o músculo distrófico foi averiguada in vitro e in vivo, no modelo murino mdx. Em cultura, constatou-se que as células tronco mesenquimais de medula óssea (MSC) têm a capacidade de fusão e diferenciação espontânea em fibras musculares, independentemente de estímulo de outros tipos celulares ou de indução in vitro à miogênese. Quando injetadas no músculo afetado, células MSC expressando a proteína GFP só foram detectadas, no máximo, após 3 dias, sugerindo a sua eliminação após este período. Quando injetadas via sistêmica, as células MSC eGFP não foram direcionadas corretamente para o músculo distrófico. Estas células também foram eliminadas em camundongos selvagens da linhagem FVB, sugerindo que a proteína GFP poderia ser a responsável pela sua rejeição. As células tronco embrionárias (ES-linhagem 129) também demonstraram capacidade miogênica in vitro. Quando injetadas no músculo de camundongos mdx imunossuprimidos, provocaram reação inflamatória muito intensa e grande aumento local da massa muscular. Essa nova estrutura, no entanto, não continha células com características de fibras musculares. Nos camundongos injetados sistemicamente, as células ES permaneceram na região de sua introdução na cauda, demonstrando pouca distribuição e disseminação para o músculo lesado. A análise de marcadores polimórficos específicos da linhagem das células ES permitiu a identificação das mesmas na concentração mínima de 30%. Este resultado indica que a hipertrofia observada no músculo do camundongo injetado foi causada, pelo menos, por esta quantidade de células. Estudos adicionais são necessários para aumentar o potencial terapêutico destas células em modelos distróficos murinos.We investigated therapeutic potential of murine mesenchymal and embryonic stem cells in the treatment of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Their ability to regenerate the dystrophic muscle was studied in vitro and in vivo, in the murine mdx model. In culture, bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) showed the capacity to fuse and to spontaneously differentiate into muscle fibers, independently of stimulation by contact with other cell types or exposure to miogenic factors in vitro. When injected into affected muscles, MSC expressing GFP protein were detected after 3 days at most, suggesting their elimination after this period. When injected in the systemic via, MSC eGFP were not properly directed to the dystrophic muscle. These cells were also eliminated in the wild strain FVB mice, suggesting that GFP protein could be responsible for this rejection. The embryonic stem cells (ES-line 129) also showed a good miogenic capacity in vitro. When injected into the muscle of immunosuppressed mdx mice, they caused very intense inflammatory reaction and a significant increase of its leg muscle mass. However, this new tissue did not contain cells with muscle fibers characteristics. In systemically injected mice, the ES cells remained in the region of introduction in the tail, showing poor distribution and dissemination into the injured muscle. Specific ES cell line polymorphic markers analysis identified a concentration of at least 30%. This result indicates that muscle hypertrophy observed in injected mice was caused by at least this amount of cells. Additional studies are necessary to increase the therapeutic potential of these cells in dystrophic murine models

The mdx Mutation in the 129/Sv Background Results in a Milder Phenotype: Transcriptome Comparative Analysis Searching for the Protective Factors.

The mdx mouse is a good genetic and molecular murine model for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD), a progressive and devastating muscle disease. However, this model is inappropriate for testing new therapies due to its mild phenotype. Here, we transferred the mdx mutation to the 129/Sv strain with the aim to create a more severe model for DMD. Unexpectedly, functional analysis of the first three generations of mdx129 showed a progressive amelioration of the phenotype, associated to less connective tissue replacement, and more regeneration than the original mdxC57BL. Transcriptome comparative analysis was performed to identify what is protecting this new model from the dystrophic characteristics. The mdxC57BL presents three times more differentially expressed genes (DEGs) than the mdx129 (371 and 137 DEGs respectively). However, both models present more overexpressed genes than underexpressed, indicating that the dystrophic and regenerative alterations are associated with the activation rather than repression of genes. As to functional categories, the DEGs of both mdx models showed a predominance of immune system genes. Excluding this category, the mdx129 model showed a decreased participation of the endo/exocytic pathway and homeostasis categories, and an increased participation of the extracellular matrix and enzymatic activity categories. Spp1 gene overexpression was the most significant DEG exclusively expressed in the mdx129 strain. This was confirmed through relative mRNA analysis and osteopontin protein quantification. The amount of the 66 kDa band of the protein, representing the post-translational product of the gene, was about 4,8 times higher on western blotting. Spp1 is a known DMD prognostic biomarker, and our data indicate that its upregulation can benefit phenotype. Modeling the expression of the DEGs involved in the mdx mutation with a benign course should be tested as a possible therapeutic target for the dystrophic process

Primers used in relative quantification of gene expression.

<p>Primers used in relative quantification of gene expression.</p

Comparative histological analysis.

<p>HE staining of gastrocnemius and diaphragm muscles, in mdx^C57BL and mdx¹²⁹ mice in the age of 6 months.</p

Quantification of <i>Spp1</i> transcript and OPN protein expression.

<p>(A) Fold changes in qPCR relative expression levels of osteopontin mRNA, as compared to the control group (129/Sv). (B) Western blotting analysis for OPN protein showing both the full length protein (66 kDa band) and one fragment of 32 kDa (cleaved product) in mdx^C57BL and mdx¹²⁹ as compared to normal control 129/Sv (con); M—myosin band. (C) Western blotting quantification showing the mean of each group for the band of 32 kDa and 66 kDa. An increase of 4,8 times of the 66 kDA band is observed in the mdx¹²⁹ group using myosin band as a protein loading control.</p