The Portuguese Disinflation Process: Analysis of Some Costs and Benefits

This study aims to analyse the Portuguese economic policy of disinflation through a nominal stabilization policy of the Portuguese escudo. We study the pegging of the Portuguese escudo (PTE) to the Deutsch mark (DM) knowing the reputation of the Bundesbank for its anti- inflationary record and the role played by the Deutsch mark in the stability processes of foreign exchange and European price levels. The study was based on the attainment of co-integrating relations using Johansen’s methodology, the construction of a Near-VAR model and the establishment of a simulation analysis. The acceptance of German monetary policy and the pegging of the escudo to the Deutsch mark allowed the Portuguese economy to achieve its primary goal of price stability. However, despite the credibility and stability gains obtained, the adoption of a disinflation policy led to a real appreciation of the escudo. This study tries to clarify the influence that an appreciation of the real exchange rate can have on GDP and price levels. It cannot be denied that Portugal has made great progress in its European integration, successfully integrating into the group of EMU member-states. However we can point to a decrease in Portuguese competitiveness as the price paid for the disinflation process. This reflects itself in lower wages, which in turn limit output growth. We find that it is of primary importance to realise both the benefits of disinflation, and the costs of the policies in terms of output.Monetary Policy, European Union, Disinflation, Co-Integration, Near-VAR and Simulation

Purchasing power parity: an empirical study of three EMU countries

We apply Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) theory to the analysis of long- run equilibrium in the foreign exchange market. We study the case of Portugal vis-à-vis Germany and Spain, and the case of Spain vis-à-vis Germany, in the period 1960-1990. The empirical analysis was based on unit-root testing (using ADF tests) and Johansen’s methodology for the study of co-integration. We worked with linear long-run relationships based exclusively on PPP, as well as with long-run relations that also allowed for the effect of interest rates. In a situation in which PPP does not hold, one could think that on account of some “natural reason” agents believe that, as time goes by, the dominant currency, which is also the reference currency of the EMS (the German Mark), will appreciate. We concluded, on the contrary, that the weaker currencies were the ones that with the passing of time appreciated in real terms. The fact that PPP theory was applied to two southern European countries deserves a special mention, because it may serve as an example for other countries that come to be in a position similar to that of Portugal and Spain before their adhered to the European Union.Purchasing Power Parity, Unit Roots, EMU, Economic Integration and Co-integration

Purchasing power parity: an empirical study of three EMU countries

We apply Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) theory to the analysis of long- run equilibrium in the foreign exchange market. We study the case of Portugal vis-à-vis Germany and Spain, and the case of Spain vis-à-vis Germany, in the period 1960-1990. The empirical analysis was based on unit-root testing (using ADF tests) and Johansen’s methodology for the study of co-integration. We worked with linear long-run relationships based exclusively on PPP, as well as with long-run relations that also allowed for the effect of interest rates. In a situation in which PPP does not hold, one could think that on account of some “natural reason” agents believe that, as time goes by, the dominant currency, which is also the reference currency of the EMS (the German Mark), will appreciate. We concluded, on the contrary, that the weaker currencies were the ones that with the passing of time appreciated in real terms. The fact that PPP theory was applied to two southern European countries deserves a special mention, because it may serve as an example for other countries that come to be in a position similar to that of Portugal and Spain before their adhered to the European Union.Purchasing Power Parity, Unit Roots, EMU, Economic Integration and Co-integration

Forecasting Inflation Through a Bottom-Up Approach: The Portuguese Case

The aim of this paper is to assess inflation forecasting acurracy over the short-term horizon using Consumer Price Index (CPI) disaggregated data. That is, aggregating forecasts is compared with aggregate forecasting. In particular, three questions are addressed: i) one should bottom-up or not, ii) how bottom one should go and iii) how one should model at the bottom. In contrast with the literature, di erent levels of data dis-aggregation are allowed, namely a higher disaggregation level than the one considered up to now. Moreover, both univariate and multivariate models are considered, such as SARIMA and SARIMAX models with dynamic common factors. An out-of-sample forecast comparison (up to twelve months ahead) is done using Portuguese CPI dataset. Aggregating the forecasts seems to be better than aggregate forecasting up to a five-months ahead horizon. Moreover, this improvement increases with the disaggregation level and the multivariate modelling outperforms the univariate one in the very short-run.

Exchange Rate and Interest Rate Distribution and Volatility under the Portuguese Target Zone

The aim of this study is to analyse the exchange rate and interest rate distribution and volatility under the participation of the Portuguese economy in the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) of the European Monetary System (EMS) based on some of the main predictions of the target zone literature. Portugal adopted this exchange rate target zone from April 6 1992 until December 31 1998. During this period, the exchange rate distribution reveals that the majority of the observations lie close to the central parity, thus rejecting one of the key predictions of the Paul Krugman (1991) model. The analysis of the data also shows that exchange rate volatility tended to increase as the exchange rate approached the edges of the band, contrary to the predictions of the basic model. Interest rate differential volatility, on the other hand, seemed to behave in line with theoretical predictions. This suggests an increase in the credibility of monetary policy, allowing us to conclude that the adoption of a target zone has contributed decisively to the creation of the macroeconomic stability conditions necessary for the participation in the European Monetary Union (EMU). The Portuguese integration process should therefore be considered as an example to be followed by other small open economies in transition to the euro area.Exchange rate stability, EMS, Volatility and target zones

Exchange Rate Target Zones: A Survey of the Literature

This work selectively reviews the literature on exchange rate target zones and their theoretical and empirical methodologies and examines whether they can be used to clarify to what extent this type of exchange rate regime could contribute to greater exchange rate stability. We discuss the main contributions of the first and second generations of exchange rate target zone models. In an attempt to reconcile the poor empirical performance of the Krugman (1991) model with the reality of exchange rate target zone regimes, this line of research integrates target zones with alternative underlying economic models, such as imperfect credibility, intra-marginal interventions and sticky price models. It was thus possible to understand the correlations observed between the exchange rate, its fundamentals determinants and the interest rate differential, and to explain the fact that the statistical distribution of the exchange rate is hump-shaped rather than U-shaped. This implies that the initial emphasis of target zone models on nonlinearities, “honeymoon effect”, “smooth pasting” and marginal interventions has vanished. Exchange rate target zones are better described as similar to managed floating regimes with intra-marginal interventions, with some marginal interventions when the exchange rate reaches the edges of the floating band.Exchange rate target zones, imperfect credibility, intra-marginal interventions realignments and sticky prices.

Exchange Rate Mean Reversion within a Target Zone: Evidence from a Country on the Periphery of the ERM

The aim of this study is to assess to what extent the Portuguese participation in the European Monetary System (EMS) has been characterized by mean reverting behaviour, as predicted by the exchange rate target zone model developed by Krugman (1991). For this purpose, a new class of mean reversion tests is introduced. The empirical analysis of mean reversion in the Portuguese exchange rate shows that most of the traditional unit root and stationarity tests point to the nonstationarity of the exchange rate within the band. However, using a set of variance-ratio tests, it was possible to detect the presence of a martingale difference sequence. This suggests that the Portuguese foreign exchange market has functioned efficiently, allowing us to conclude that the adoption of an exchange rate target zone regime has contributed decisively to the creation of the macroeconomic stability conditions necessary for the participation of Portugal in the euro area.difference sequence, mean reversion, stationarity, target zones and unit roots

Exchange Rate and Interest Rate Volatility in a Target Zone: The Portuguese Case

This work examines the participation of the Portuguese economy in the ERM of the EMS based on some of the main predictions of the target zone literature. The exchange rate distribution reveals that the majority of the observations lie close to the central parity, thus rejecting one of the key predictions of the Krugman (1991) model. Using a M-GARCH model however we confirm that there is a trade-off between exchange rate volatility and interest rates differential volatility. These results express the increased credibility of the Portuguese monetary policy, due manly to the modernisation of the banking and financial system and to the progress made in terms of the disinflation process under an exchange rate target zone policy. In accordance to these results we can say that the participation of the Portuguese escudo in an exchange rate target zone was crucial to create the conditions of stability, credibility and confidence necessary for the adoption of a single currency.Credibility, Exchange rate stability, M-GARCH, ERM, EMS, Volatility and target zones