New environment, new invaders - repeated horizontal transfer of LINEs to sea snakes

While numerous studies have found horizontal transposon transfer (HTT) to be widespread across metazoans, few have focused on HTT in marine ecosystems. To investigate potential recent HTTs into marine species we searched for novel repetitive elements in sea snakes, a group of elapids which transitioned to a marine habitat at most 18 Mya. Our analysis uncovered repeated HTTs into sea snakes following their marine transition. The 7 subfamilies of horizontally transferred LINE retrotransposons we identified in the olive sea snake (Aipysurus laevis) are transcribed, and hence are likely still active and expanding across the genome. A search of 600 metazoan genomes found all 7 were absent from other amniotes, including terrestrial elapids, with the most similar LINEs present in fish and marine invertebrates. The one exception was a similar LINE found in sea kraits, a lineage of amphibious elapids which independently transitioned to a marine environment 25 Mya. Our finding of repeated horizontal transfer events into marine snakes greatly expands past findingst that the marine environment promotes the transfer of transposons. Transposons are drivers of evolution as sources of genomic sequence and hence genomic novelty. We identified 13 candidate genes for HTT-induced adaptive change based on internal or neighbouring HTT LINE insertions. One of these, ADCY4, is of particular interest as a part of the KEGG adaptation pathway "Circadian Entrainment". This provides evidence of the ecological interactions between species influencing evolution of metazoans not only through specific selection pressures, but also by contributing novel genomic material

Leishmaniose cutânea experimental: I - sobre a susceptibilidade do primata Cebus apella (Cebidae) a infecção pela Leishmania (Viannia) lainsoni Silveira, Shaw, Braga e Ishikawa, 1987

Foi investigada a susceptibilidade do primata Cebus apella (Cebidae) à infecção experimental pela Leishmaiua (Viannia) lainsoni, com o objetivo de estudara patogenia desse parasita, ainda pouco conhecido para o homem. Dessa forma, cinco espécimens jovens daquele primata, 2 machos e 3 fêmeas, foram inoculados, intraderme, em oito sítios diferentes da região dorsal da cauda com 3 x 10(6) de promastigotas do parasita (MHOMZBR/81/M6426, Benevides, Pará), obtidas de cultura da fase estacionária. Em seguida às inoculações, a infecção experimental nos animais foi comprovada, não só pela presença de amastigotas do parasita na pele dos animais inoculados, mas, também, pela concomitância desse achado associado ao desenvolvimento de lesão cutânea nos pontos da pele onde o parasita foi inoculado. Diante desses resultados, ficou demonstrada a susceptibilidade do primata Cebus apella à infecção experimental pela Leishmama lainsoni cujo período de infecção durou quase quatro meses, suficiente para testar drogas antileishmanióticas e estudar a patogênese da doença causada por este parasita.The susceptibility of the monkey Cebus apella (Cebidae) to experimental infection by Leishmania (Viannia) lainsoni has been investigated. For this purpose, five young monkeys, 2 males and 3 females, were intradermally, inoculated, in eight different places along the dorsal surface of the tail with 3 x 10(6) promastigotes of the parasite (MHOM/BR/81/M6426, Benevides, Pará), from stationary phase culture in Difco B45 medium. After inoculations, infection in the monkeys was indicated by the presence of amastigotes in the skin lesions produced in these animals at the points of inoculation, confirming the susceptibility of the monkey Cebus apella to experimental infection by Leishmania lainsoni, with an infection period of four months. This represents a suitable period for testing antileishmanial drugs or studying the pathogenesis of the disease caused by this parasite

Leishmaniose cutânea experimental: II - aspectos evolutivos da infecção no primata Cebus apella (Cebidae) pela Leishmania (V.) Braziliensis e L. (L.) Amazonensis

Objetivando avaliar o potencial do primata C. apella como modelo experimental da leishmaniose cutânea, produzida pela L. (V.) braziliensis e L. (L.) Amazonensis , inocularam-se, via intradérmica, 3 X 10(6) de promastigotas dessas leishmanias, em 8 sítios da cauda de 10 espécimens desse primata, 5 deles com a L. (V.) braziliensis e outros 5 com a L. (L.) Amazonensis . Posteriormente, às inoculações, o exame semanal dos animais e biópsias mensais, revelaram os seguintes resultados relativos a cada parasita: a) L. (V.) braziliensis : o período de incubação foi de 15-20 dias; aos 30 dias evidenciaram-se lesões pápulo-eritematosas, que evoluíram para nódulos ao fim de 60 dias; no 3.° mês, notou-se ulceração espontânea destas lesões e, no 4° mês, deu-se o início da reparação das lesões ulceradas, culminando com a cura em um dos animais após 5 meses, em dois após 6 meses, noutro após 7 meses e, no último, após 10 meses. Quanto ao parasitismo nas lesões, foi demonstrado nos 5 animais, até 90 dias; depois disto, somente em 2 até 120 dias e, por fim, até 180 dias apenas naquele que curou depois de 10 meses, b) L. (L.) Amazonensis : o período de incubação foi de 20 dias; aos 30 dias notou- se lesões pápulo-eritematosas, que também evoluíram para nódulos ao fim de 60 dias, porém, a partir do 3.° mês, estas lesões regrediram rapidamente ao fim de 90 dias, quando não mais detectou-se o parasita na pele dos animais. Em relação aos testes de Montenegro, somente 2 dos 5 animais infectados com a L. (V.) braziliensis reagiram ao teste, 60 e 90 dias após as inoculações. Os resultados observados permitiram confirmar a infectividade do C. apella a estas leishmanias e, também, reforçar a indicação desse primata como modelo experimental da leishmaniose cutânea causada por estes parasitas.As a means of assessing the usufulness of the monkey Cebus apella as an experimental model for the study of cutaneous leishmaniasis, 5 of these animals were inoculated intradermally at 8 sites along the tail with 3 X 106 promastigotes of L. (V.) braziliensis , while a further 5 monkeys received similar inoculations with 3 X 10(6) promastigotes of L. (L.) Amazonensis . Following the inoculations, weekly examinations and monthly biopsies showed evolution of resulting skin lesions to be as follows: a) L. (V.) braziliensis : lesions were first visible 15-20 days postinoculation (p.i), and at 30 days they were clearly of an etythematous-papular nature, which assumed a nodular form at 60 days; after 3 months a spontaneous ulceration of these lesions was noted and, at 4 months, the initiation of healing. In one animal total healing was apparent 5 months p.i; in two others at 6 months, in another monkey after 7 months, and in the last animal at 10 months p.i. Amastigotes were demonstrated in smears from the lesions of all monkeys up to 90 days p.i; up to 120 days in two animals, and at 180 days p.i. in the monkey which showed resolution of the lesions after 10 months, b) L. (L.) Amazonensis lesions were first apparent after 20 days p. i; at 30 days they were of an en'thematous-papular nature, developing into nodules at 60 days. From the third month of infection onwards, however, the lesions diminished rapidly and, at 90 days p.i. amastigotes were no longer detectable in the skin. With regards to the Montenegro (leishmanin) skin tests, only two of the monkeys (infected with L. (V.) braziliensis ) gave positive reactions, at 60 and 9 ) days p. i. These results confirm the susceptibility of C. apella to infections with both L. (V.) braziliensis and L. (L.) Amazonensis , and support previous indications that this monkey may serve as an useful experimental model for the study of cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by these parasites

Impactos dos subsídios agrícolas dos Estados Unidos na expansão do agronegócio brasileiro

Nos fóruns de negociações multilaterais da Organização Mundial de Comércio subsiste veemente debate com intuito de eliminar as subvenções agrícolas nos países desenvolvidos. Contudo, os Estados Unidos têm aumentado o volume desses subsídios, causando distorções no comércio agrícola mundial. Assim, o objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar os impactos desses subsídios norte-americanos (Loan Deficiency Payments), concedidos no período de 2002 a 2007, sobre o crescimento do agronegócio brasileiro. Os resultados permitem inferir que a redução dos subsídios nos EUA propiciaria o crescimento da produção agroindustrial brasileira e ampliaria o superávit na balança comercial desse setor, com crescimento conjunto das exportações e importações. Portanto, cortes nesses subsídios contribuiriam para maior competitividade das exportações brasileiras e gerariam oportunidades para o crescimento do agronegócio.In the forums of multilateral negotiations of the World Trade Organization (WTO) there has been a strong debate which tries to eliminate the agricultural subventions in the developed countries. However, the United States has increased the amount of these subsidies causing distortions in the world agricultural trade. Therefore, the purpose of this research has been to evaluate these American subsidies impacts (Loan Deficiency Payments) given between 2002 and 2007 upon the Brazilian agribusiness growth. The findings allow to deduce that the reduction of the subsidies in the United States might promote the growth of the Brazilian agribusiness production and might produce trade surplus in the trade balance in this sector as well as the growth of both exports and imports. Hence the cuts in these subsidies would contribute to a bigger competitiveness of the Brazilian exports and would generate opportunities to the agribusiness growth

Global Perspectives on Task Shifting and Task Sharing in Neurosurgery.

BACKGROUND: Neurosurgical task shifting and task sharing (TS/S), delegating clinical care to non-neurosurgeons, is ongoing in many hospital systems in which neurosurgeons are scarce. Although TS/S can increase access to treatment, it remains highly controversial. This survey investigated perceptions of neurosurgical TS/S to elucidate whether it is a permissible temporary solution to the global workforce deficit. METHODS: The survey was distributed to a convenience sample of individuals providing neurosurgical care. A digital survey link was distributed through electronic mailing lists of continental neurosurgical societies and various collectives, conference announcements, and social media platforms (July 2018-January 2019). Data were analyzed by descriptive statistics and univariate regression of Likert Scale scores. RESULTS: Survey respondents represented 105 of 194 World Health Organization member countries (54.1%; 391 respondents, 162 from high-income countries and 229 from low- and middle-income countries [LMICs]). The most agreed on statement was that task sharing is preferred to task shifting. There was broad consensus that both task shifting and task sharing should require competency-based evaluation, standardized training endorsed by governing organizations, and maintenance of certification. When perspectives were stratified by income class, LMICs were significantly more likely to agree that task shifting is professionally disruptive to traditional training, task sharing should be a priority where human resources are scarce, and to call for additional TS/S regulation, such as certification and formal consultation with a neurosurgeon (in person or electronic/telemedicine). CONCLUSIONS: Both LMIC and high-income countries agreed that task sharing should be prioritized over task shifting and that additional recommendations and regulations could enhance care. These data invite future discussions on policy and training programs

Regional Image Features Model for Automatic Classification between Normal and Glaucoma in Fundus and Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy (SLO) Images

Glaucoma is one of the leading causes of blindness. There is no cure for glaucoma but detection at its earliest stage and subsequent treatment can aid patients to prevent blindness. Currently, optic disc and retinal imaging facilitates glaucoma detection but this method still requires manual post-imaging modifications that are time-consuming and do not totally remove subjectivity in image assessment. Therefore, it is necessary to automate this process. In this work, we have first proposed a novel computer aided approach for automatic glaucoma detection based on Regional Image Features Model (RIFM) which can automatically perform classification between normal and glaucoma images on the basis of regional information. Different from all the existing methods, our approach can extract both geometric (e.g. morphometric properties) and non-geometric based properties (e.g. pixel appearance/intensity values, texture) from images and significantly increase the classification performance. Our proposed approach consists of three new major contributions including automatic localisation of optic disc, automatic segmentation of disc, and classification between normal and glaucoma based on geometric and non-geometric properties of different regions of an image. We have compared our method with existing approaches and tested it on both fundus and Scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO) images. The experimental results show that our proposed approach outperforms the state-of-the-art approaches using either geometric or non-geometric properties. The overall glaucoma classification accuracy for fundus is 94.4% and accuracy of detection of suspicion of glaucoma in SLO images is 93.9%

Global age-sex-specific fertility, mortality, healthy life expectancy (HALE), and population estimates in 204 countries and territories, 1950-2019 : a comprehensive demographic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019

Background: Accurate and up-to-date assessment of demographic metrics is crucial for understanding a wide range of social, economic, and public health issues that affect populations worldwide. The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2019 produced updated and comprehensive demographic assessments of the key indicators of fertility, mortality, migration, and population for 204 countries and territories and selected subnational locations from 1950 to 2019. Methods: 8078 country-years of vital registration and sample registration data, 938 surveys, 349 censuses, and 238 other sources were identified and used to estimate age-specific fertility. Spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression (ST-GPR) was used to generate age-specific fertility rates for 5-year age groups between ages 15 and 49 years. With extensions to age groups 10–14 and 50–54 years, the total fertility rate (TFR) was then aggregated using the estimated age-specific fertility between ages 10 and 54 years. 7417 sources were used for under-5 mortality estimation and 7355 for adult mortality. ST-GPR was used to synthesise data sources after correction for known biases. Adult mortality was measured as the probability of death between ages 15 and 60 years based on vital registration, sample registration, and sibling histories, and was also estimated using ST-GPR. HIV-free life tables were then estimated using estimates of under-5 and adult mortality rates using a relational model life table system created for GBD, which closely tracks observed age-specific mortality rates from complete vital registration when available. Independent estimates of HIV-specific mortality generated by an epidemiological analysis of HIV prevalence surveys and antenatal clinic serosurveillance and other sources were incorporated into the estimates in countries with large epidemics. Annual and single-year age estimates of net migration and population for each country and territory were generated using a Bayesian hierarchical cohort component model that analysed estimated age-specific fertility and mortality rates along with 1250 censuses and 747 population registry years. We classified location-years into seven categories on the basis of the natural rate of increase in population (calculated by subtracting the crude death rate from the crude birth rate) and the net migration rate. We computed healthy life expectancy (HALE) using years lived with disability (YLDs) per capita, life tables, and standard demographic methods. Uncertainty was propagated throughout the demographic estimation process, including fertility, mortality, and population, with 1000 draw-level estimates produced for each metric. Findings: The global TFR decreased from 2·72 (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 2·66–2·79) in 2000 to 2·31 (2·17–2·46) in 2019. Global annual livebirths increased from 134·5 million (131·5–137·8) in 2000 to a peak of 139·6 million (133·0–146·9) in 2016. Global livebirths then declined to 135·3 million (127·2–144·1) in 2019. Of the 204 countries and territories included in this study, in 2019, 102 had a TFR lower than 2·1, which is considered a good approximation of replacement-level fertility. All countries in sub-Saharan Africa had TFRs above replacement level in 2019 and accounted for 27·1% (95% UI 26·4–27·8) of global livebirths. Global life expectancy at birth increased from 67·2 years (95% UI 66·8–67·6) in 2000 to 73·5 years (72·8–74·3) in 2019. The total number of deaths increased from 50·7 million (49·5–51·9) in 2000 to 56·5 million (53·7–59·2) in 2019. Under-5 deaths declined from 9·6 million (9·1–10·3) in 2000 to 5·0 million (4·3–6·0) in 2019. Global population increased by 25·7%, from 6·2 billion (6·0–6·3) in 2000 to 7·7 billion (7·5–8·0) in 2019. In 2019, 34 countries had negative natural rates of increase; in 17 of these, the population declined because immigration was not sufficient to counteract the negative rate of decline. Globally, HALE increased from 58·6 years (56·1–60·8) in 2000 to 63·5 years (60·8–66·1) in 2019. HALE increased in 202 of 204 countries and territories between 2000 and 2019