Subjectivity and Social Positions Shape Habitability in the Context of Environmental Change: a Qualitative Case Study in Northern Ghana

The loss of habitable land is increasingly recognized in climate risk assessments, mainly stemming from material approaches based on concepts of loss and damage. While this generalizes people’s experience of environmental change and habitability, the lived realities of environmental change impacts are not homogeneous within one place. Adaptation measures building on such homogenous notions of habitability run risk to not only reproduce but also to increase existing inequalities. Contrasting that, the perception of habitability differs between individuals and is thus subject to multiple claims of truth. Our work aims to add to a more nuanced conceptualization of the habitability concept by showing the socially differentiated perceptions of habitability in a given place. We build our work on a qualitative field study in rural Northern Ghana, drawing on an intersectional understanding of habitability. Our results show how the intersection of gender, age, socio-economic status, and household composition translates into social practices that shape a socially differentiated experience of perceived habitability in places exposed to environmental change. This perception is further influenced by the connectivity of places, as well as by very personal notions of habitability related to changes in social networks and aspects of place attachment. Contrasting material and noncontext based understandings of habitability, we conclude that the habitability of a place exposed to environmental change is subjective, characterized through an actor’s position within a social-ecological system. Understanding this position as embedded in space and time, it is the interplay of various social categories and the social practices emerging from them that shape an actor’s position, and perceived habitability. Understanding this, and consequently avoiding generalizing assessments and statements about habitability, is crucial to implementing policies that enable empowering change, rather than reproducing existing inequalities through climate change adaptation. Those affected by environmental change need to be included when defining habitability

Women in Agriculture, Migration and Dietary Diversity in Four Agro-Ecological Zones in Ghana

Women in Agriculture, Migration and Dietary Diversity in Four Agro-Ecological Zones in Ghana Internal Union for the Scientific Study of Populations (IUSSP) Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, 2017 Introduction Climate change has significant impact on food production in Africa due to over-reliance rain-fed agriculture (McKune et al., 2015; Lake et al., 2012; Lam et al., 2012; World Bank 2007). This varies across agro-ecological zones due to differences in climatic factors and type of crop produced (FAO, 2008). The poor crop yield has trigged mass migration of the working age population to urban areas, which threatens the food security of those left behind. Though migration is a documented adaptation strategy to climate change, there is limited scholarship on how it affects household food security (IPCC, 2014). It is expected that migrants will send remittances to support the family left behind, and ultimately enhance their food security. Women who stay behind in their communities play a critical role in food production (Danso et al., 2004). Unlike men who mostly cultivate cash crops for income, women are mostly involved in subsistence farming to feed their families (Boakye-Acheampong et al., 2012). However, little is known about their contribution to household food utilization. This study therefore sought to investigate the effect of women involved in agriculture in maintaining dietary diversity of their households. We also examined the role of migrants on household dietary diversity. It is expected that this study will contribute to policies aimed at enhancing household food security amidst changing climate. Methodology Study communities The study was carried out in four communities- Amansie West, Mfantseman, Techiman and Tolon in the Rainforest, the Coastal Savannah, Transition and Guinea Savannah agro-ecological zones respectively in Ghana. The rainfall and temperature conditions, the types of crops grown and the conditions surrounding agricultural productions vary significant across these zones, and therefore have the tendency of influencing the food availability and choices in these communities. Data We used data from a cross-sectional survey from the Women, Climate Change and Food Security project conducted at Regional Institute for Population Studies (RIPS) between May and July, 2016. Measures We computed household dietary diversity (HDD) as proxy for nutritional adequacy of the household. The HDD measure has previously been used by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2011), Codjoe, Okutu & Mumuni, (2016) and also Kennedy et al., (2010). The score was computed from responses of household heads on food consumed by household members both at home and outside for seven days preceding the survey, in accordance with the Radimir/Cornell scale. We used ten food categories adopted from the FAO’s food category for West Africa (FAO, 2011), as there is no international consensus on which food categories to include in the HDD score. The score, which was an accumulation of the frequency of food eaten from each category by a member of the household, yielded a range from 0 to 9. The household was explained as a group of people who eat from the same pot when food is prepared at home and who get money for street food from the same source. Data analysis At the univariate level, frequency of consumption was aggregated for each food category. A series of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests were done to examine which variables significantly explain the variance in HDD at the bivariate level for the categorical variables. Bivariate correlations were done between the continuous variables and the HDD score. Then a multiple linear regression model was done to examine the variables that significantly predict the HDD score. Results Univariate The HDD score has a minimum of 0 and maximum of 9. It has a normal distribution with mean score of 4.86 and standard deviation of 1.63. The univariate analysis indicates that meat/egg/fish was the most frequently consumed food. The food categories are cereals, tubers/roots crops, fruits, vegetables, fruits, fats/oils, meat/fish/egg, beans/peas/nuts, milk products, and beverages. The most frequently consumed food category was the meat/egg/fish and the least consumed was milk products. These varied across agro-ecological zones. Bivariate The result from the one-way analysis of variance showed that ecological zone, marital status, sex of household head, ethnicity, occupation and ethnicity and religion significantly explained the variance in HDD. The post hoc test indicated that dietary diversity for respondents in the Guinea Savannah is significantly higher (mean= 5.57, SD=1.98) than all the other ecological zones- Transition (mean=5.05, SD=1.98), Coastal Savannah (mean=4.96, SD=1.62) and Rainforest (mean=4.86, SD=1.63). With regards to religious affiliation, respondents in the other Christian category (comprising Jehovah Witnesses and Seventh Day Adventists) had significantly lower dietary diversity (mean=4.33, SD=1.45) than the Catholics (mean=5.19, SD=1.65), the Protestants (mean=5.12, SD=1.66), the Pentecostals/Charismatics (mean=5.39, SD=1.65) and Muslims (mean=5.54, SD=2.05). This is not unexpected as the other Christians have a number of dietary restrictions. Education level of the household head did not significantly explain the variance in HDD. With regards to ethnicity, Akans have significantly lower HDD (mean=4.67, SD=1.67) than the Mole-Dagbani (mean=5.57, SD=1.57), the Nzema (mean=1.26, SD=1.26) and other ethnic group which comprises the Ewe and Guan (mean=5.26, SD=1.26). Again, female headed households have significantly higher HDD (mean=5.38, SD=1.81) than male headed households (mean=4.71, SD=1.78). This corroborates the literature that argues that females play integral roles in food production, distribution and processing. Multivariate The multiple linear regression analysis further revealed that social network, ecological zone, occupation of household head, education of household head, wealth category, and ethnicity are significant predictors of HDD. With regards to the agro-ecological zone, households in the Rainforest, Coastal Savannah, Transition zones respectively have 0.22, 0.29 and 0.12 less HDD than those in Guinea Savannah. A unit increase in a household’s social network increases the HDD by 0.06. In addition, households with heads involved in farming as their primary occupation have 0.03 lower food diversity than those involved in other occupations. This is due to the subsistence nature of farming in Ghana, where people virtually consume what they grow and do not have the capacity to purchase other food categories. Explaining this point further, the model revealed that rich households had 0.11 higher dietary diversity score than poor household. In households where the head had no education, the dietary diversity score was 0.08 lower than those with higher education; the more educated would want to eat from diverse food categories, due to the knowledge of nutrition. Contrary to what is expected, there was no significant difference between migrant and non-migrant households in terms of their dietary diversity. Conclusion The most frequently consumed food category is meat/egg/fish. Milk products category was the least frequently consumed food category. The variables that significantly explain the variance in HDD are sex of household head, women in the household involved in agriculture, type of agro-ecological zone, marital status and primary occupation of household head. Out of these variables, agro-ecological zones, marital status, household wealth, occupation of household head were significant predictors of the HDD. Household heads in marital union had higher dietary diversity than those not in any union. Households with migrants did not show higher HDD as hypothesized. As hypothesized, households with women engaged in agriculture had significantly higher HDD than those without. Providing the enabling environment for women in agriculture is therefore key to enhancing household food security

Cost and benefit analysis of adopting climate adaptation practices among smallholders: The case of five selected practices in Ghana

Smallholder farmers mostly depend on agriculture for their sustenance yet the sector is threatened by changing climate. It is essential for smallholders to adapt to reduce their vulnerability. Estimating the economic effectiveness of climate adaptation practices would enhance planning and actions among stakeholders and consequently impact policy. This study conducted an ex-ante in-depth empirical analysis of the costs and benefits of implementing five climate adaptation strategies identified among smallholder horticultural farmers in Ghana. A total of 180 smallholder households who have implemented the identified practices in two horticultural cropgrowing municipalities were surveyed. Profitability indicators, evaluation of environmental and social externalities were employed to comparatively estimate the cost-effectiveness of the practices. The results indicated that, from private and public perspectives, implementing any of the five adaptation practices would yield positive benefits. However, considering the capital required, payback period for investments made and risks from implementation, two out of the five practices are particularly fitting choices for the smallholders. Institutional and policy support is desirable if all the practices are to be adopted. To broaden information on potential of climate adaptation vis-a-vis ` climatic effects with economic analysis, the study proposes integrating localized climate vulnerability and economic assessments for enhanced climate adaptation actions

Evaluating migration as successful adaptation to climate change: trade-offs in well-being, equity, and sustainability

The role of migration as one potential adaptation to climate change is increasingly recognized, but little is known about whether migration constitutes successful adaptation, under what conditions, and for whom. Based on a review of emerging migration science, we propose that migration is a successful adaptation to climate change if it increases well-being, reduces inequality, and promotes sustainability. Well-being, equity, and sustainability represent entry points for identifying trade-offs within and across different social and temporal scales that could potentially undermine the success of migration as adaptation. We show that assessment of success at various scales requires the incorporation of consequences such as loss of population in migration source areas, climate risk in migration destination, and material and non-material flows and economic synergies between source and destination. These dynamics and evaluation criteria can help make migration visible and tractable to policy as an effective adaptation option

Social consequences of planned relocation in response to sea level rise: impacts on anxiety, well-being, and perceived safety

Governments globally are adapting to sea level rise through a range of interventions to improve everyday lives of communities at risk. One prominent response is planned relocation, where people and communities are enabled to move from localities exposed to coastal erosion and inundation as a result of sea level rise. Managed retreat has significant social consequences including under-reported impacts on health, well-being and social identity. Here we adopt well-established measures of well-being and document the outcomes of planned relocation on well-being in the Volta Delta region of Ghana. Data from a bespoke survey for individuals (n = 505) in relocated and non-relocated communities demonstrate that planned relocation negatively impacts well-being and anxiety of those relocated when compared to a community that is equally exposed but has not moved. Individuals in the relocated community reported significantly lower levels of overall wellbeing, significantly higher levels of anxiety, and lower perceptions of safety, compared to non-relocated community members. These outcomes are explained as being related to the disruption of community connection, identities, and feelings of efficacy. Relocated community members reported significantly lower levels of attachment to the local area and home, significantly lower levels of community-based self-efficacy, and significantly lower levels of overall community-based identity. The results demonstrate that planned relocation to address sea level rise has multiple social consequences with outcomes for well-being that are not straightforwardly related to risk reduction

Perceived environmental risks and insecurity reduce future migration intentions in hazardous migration source areas

An analysis of perceptions of motivations for prior migration and migration intentions of households in four low-lying coastal areas in Asia and Africa finds that few households identified environmental risks as the primary driver for past migration decisions. The study examined the extent to which specific elements of perceptions of environment might influence migration intention. Social determinants such as larger households, households with ecosystem-based livelihoods, and those with migrant networks report potential future intentions to migrate that are 6%, 14%, and 90%, respectively higher than those that do not show these characteristics

The migration-sustainability paradox: transformations in mobile worlds

This is the final version. Available from Elsevier via the DOI in this record. Migration represents a major transformation of the lives of those involved and has been transformative of societies and economies globally. Yet models of sustainability transformations do not effectively incorporate the movement of populations. There is an apparent migration-sustainability paradox: migration plays a role as a driver of unsustainability as part of economic globalisation, yet simultaneously represents a transformative phenomenon and potential force for sustainable development. We propose criteria by which migration represents an opportunity for sustainable development: increasing aggregate well-being; reduced inequality leading to diverse social benefits; and reduced aggregate environmental burden. We detail the dimensions of the transformative potential of migration and develop a generic framework for migration-sustainability linkages based on environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainability, highlighting identity and social transformation dimensions of migration. Such a model overcomes the apparent paradox by explaining the role of societal mobility in achieving sustainable outcomes.Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC)European Research CouncilUniversity of Exeter European Network Fun

The Migration-Sustainability Paradox: Transformations in Mobile Worlds

Migration represents a major transformation of the lives of those involved and has been transformative of societies and economies globally. Yet models of sustainability transformations do not effectively incorporate the movement of populations. There is an apparent migration-sustainability paradox: migration plays a role as a driver of unsustainability as part of economic globalisation, yet simultaneously represents a transformative phenomenon and potential force for sustainable development. We propose criteria by which migration represents an opportunity for sustainable development: increasing aggregate well-being; reduced inequality leading to diverse social benefits; and reduced aggregate environmental burden. We detail the dimensions of the transformative potential of migration and develop a generic framework for migration-sustainability linkages based on environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainability, highlighting identity and social transformation dimensions of migration. Such a model overcomes the apparent paradox by explaining the role of societal mobility in achieving sustainable outcomes