How the global structure of protein interaction networks evolves

Two processes can influence the evolution of protein interaction networks: addition and elimination of interactions between proteins, and gene duplications increasing the number of proteins and interactions. The rates of these processes can be estimated from available Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome data and are sufficiently high to affect network structure on short time scales. For instance, more than 100 interactions may be added to the yeast network every million years, a substantial fraction of which adds previously unconnected proteins to the network. Highly connected proteins show a greater rate of interaction turnover than proteins with few interactions. From these observations one can explain ? without natural selection on global network structure ? the evolutionary sustenance of the most prominent network feature, the distribution of the frequency P(d) of proteins with d neighbors, which is a broad-tailed distribution. This distribution is independent of the experimental approach providing nformation on network structure

Calculation of secondary electron trajectories in multistage depressed collectors for microwave amplifiers

Computational procedures are reported for treating power losses due to secondary electrons in multistage depressed collectors (MDC) for traveling wave tubes (TWT) and other O-type electron tubes. The MDC is modeled with an advanced, multidimensional computer program. Representative beams of secondary electrons are then injected at the points of impact of the primary beams. Separate programs are used to calculate representative beams of high-energy primary electron beams and of low-energy true secondaries. The recomputation of the MDC model including the true secondary beam allows determination of the secondary emission losses, and, if necessary, redesign of the MDC to improve performance. Recomputation of the MDC model including the primary beams is used to check on possible backstreaming from the MDC to the RF interaction structure of the tube. A comparison with experimentally measured values of TWT and MDC efficiencies is made

Analytical and experimental performance of a dual-mode traveling wave tube and multistage depressed collector

A computational procedure for the design of traveling-wave-tube(TWT)/refocuser/multistage depressed collector (MDC) systems was used to design a short, permanent-magnet refocusing system and a highly efficient MDC for a medium-power, dual-mode, 4.8- to 9.6-GHz TWT. The computations were carried out with advanced, multidimensional computer programs which model the electron beam and follow the trajectories of representative charges from the radiofrequency (RF) input of the TWT, through the slow-wave structure and refocusing section, to their points of impact in the depressed collector. Secondary emission losses in the MDC were treated semiquantitatively by injecting representative secondary-electron-emission current into the MDA analysis at the point of impact of each primary beam. A comparison of computed and measured TWT and MDC performance showed very good agreement. The electrodes of the MDC were fabricated from a particluar form of isptropic graphite that was selected for its low secondary electron yield, ease of machinability, and vacuum properties

Spent-beam refocusing analysis and multistage depressed collector design for a 75-W, 59- to 64-GHz coupled-cavity traveling-wave tube

A computational design technique for coupled-cavity tubes (TWTs) equipped with spent-beam refocusers (SBRs) and multistage depressed collectors (MDCs) is described. A large-signal multidimensional computer program was used to analyze the TWT-SBR performance and to generate the spent-beam models used for MDC design. The results of a design involving a 75-W, 59 to 64 GHz TWT are presented. The SBR and MDC designs are shown, and the computed TWT, SBR, and MDC performances are described. Collector efficiencies in excess of 94 percent led to projected overall TWT efficiencies in the 40-percent range

Navigation Performance of Global Navigation Satellite Systems in the Space Service Volume

This paper extends the results I reported at this year's ION International Technical Meeting on multi-constellation GNSS coverage by showing how the use of multi-constellation GNSS improves Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP). Originally developed to provide position, navigation, and timing for terrestrial users, GPS has found increasing use for in space for precision orbit determination, precise time synchronization, real-time spacecraft navigation, and three-axis attitude control of Earth orbiting satellites. With additional Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) coming into service (GLONASS, Galileo, and Beidou) and the development of Satellite Based Augmentation Services, it is possible to obtain improved precision by using evolving multi-constellation receiver. The Space Service Volume formally defined as the volume of space between three thousand kilometers altitude and geosynchronous altitude ((is) approximately 36,500 km), with the volume below three thousand kilometers defined as the Terrestrial Service Volume (TSV). The USA has established signal requirements for the Space Service Volume (SSV) as part of the GPS Capability Development Documentation (CDD). Diplomatic efforts are underway to extend Space service Volume commitments to the other Position, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) service providers in an effort to assure that all space users will benefit from the enhanced capabilities of interoperating GNSS services in the space domain

Communications Transceivers for Venus Surface Missions

The high temperature of the surface of Venus poses many difficulties. Previous Venus landers have only operated for short durations before succumbing to the heat. NASA Glenn Research Center conducted a study on communications for long duration Venus surface missions. I report the findings in this presentation. Current technology allows production of communications transceivers that can operate on the surface of Venus, at temperatures above 450 C and pressures of over 90 atmospheres. While these transceivers would have to be relatively simple, without much of the advanced signal processing often used in modern transceivers, since current and near future integrated circuits cannot operate at such high temperatures, the transceivers will be able to meet the requirements of proposed Venus Surface mission. The communication bands of interest are High Frequency or Very High Frequency (HFNHF) for communication between Venus surface and airborne probes (including surface to surface and air to air), and Ultra High Frequency (UHF) to Microwave bands for communication to orbiters. For HFNHF, transceivers could use existing vacuum tube technology. The packaging of the vacuum tubes may need modification, but the internal operating structure already operates at high temperatures. Using metal vacuum structures instead of glass, allows operation at high pressure. Wide bandgap transistors and diodes may be able to replace some of the thermionic components. VHF communications would be useful for line-of- sight operations, while HF would be useful for short-wave type communications using the Venusian ionosphere. UHF and microwave communications use magnetically focused thermionic devices, such as traveling wave tubes (TWTs), magnetron (M-type) amplifiers, and klystrons for high power amplifiers, and backward wave oscillators (BWOs) and reflex klystrons for oscillators. Permanent magnets are already in use in industry that can operate at 500 C. These magnets could focus electron beam tubes on the surface of Venus. While microwave windows will need to be designed for the high pressure, diamond windows have already been demonstrated, so high-pressure microwave windows can be designed and built. Thus, all of these devices could be useful for Venus surface missions. Current electronic power conditioners to supply the high voltages used in these microwave devices cannot operate at high temperatures, but earlier electronic power conditioners that used vacuum tubes can be modified to work at high temperature. Evaluating the various devices in this study, the M-type traveling wave tube (where a traveling wave structure is used in a crossed-field device, similar to the Amplitron used on the Apollo missions) stood out for the high power amplifier since it requires a single high voltage, simplifying the power supply design. Since the receiver amplifier is a low power amplifier, the loss of efficiency in linear beam devices without a depressed collector (and thus needing a single high voltage) is not important; a low noise TWT is a possible solution. Before solid-state microwave amplifiers were available, such TWTs were built with a 1-2 dB noise figure. A microwave triode or transistor made from a wide bandgap material may be preferable, if available. Much of the development work needed for Venusian communication devices will need to focus on the packaging of the devices, and their connections, but the technology is available to build transceivers that can operate on the surface of Venus indefinitely

Individual Global Navigation Satellite Systems in the Space Service Volume

Besides providing position, navigation, and timing (PNT) to terrestrial users, GPS is currently used to provide for precision orbit determination, precise time synchronization, real-time spacecraft navigation, and three-axis control of Earth orbiting satellites. With additional Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) coming into service (GLONASS, Beidou, and Galileo), it will be possible to provide these services by using other GNSS constellations. The paper, "GPS in the Space Service Volume," presented at the ION GNSS 19th International Technical Meeting in 2006 (Ref. 1), defined the Space Service Volume, and analyzed the performance of GPS out to 70,000 km. This paper will report a similar analysis of the performance of each of the additional GNSS and compare them with GPS alone. The Space Service Volume, defined as the volume between 3,000 km altitude and geosynchronous altitude, as compared with the Terrestrial Service Volume between the surface and 3,000 km. In the Terrestrial Service Volume, GNSS performance will be similar to performance on the Earth's surface. The GPS system has established signal requirements for the Space Service Volume. A separate paper presented at the conference covers the use of multiple GNSS in the Space Service Volume

Verification of computer-aided designs of traveling-wave tubes utilizing novel dynamic refocusers and graphite electrodes for the multistage depressed collector

A computational procedure for the design of TWT-refocuser-MDC systems was used to design a short dynamic refocusing system and highly efficient four-stage depressed collector for a 200-W, 8- to 18-GHz, TWT. The computations were carried out with advanced, multidimensional computer programs which model the electron beam as a series of disks of charge and follow their trajectories from the RF input of the TWT, through the slow-wave structure and refocusing section, to their points of impact in the depressed collector. Secondary emission losses in the MDC were treated semi-quantitatively by injecting a representative beam of secondary electrons into the MDC analysis at the point of impact of each primary beam. A comparison of computed and measured TWT and MDC performance showed very good agreement. The electrodes of the MDC were fabricated from a particular form of isotropic graphite that was selected for its low secondary electron yield, ease of machinability, and vacuum properties. This MDC was tested (at CW) for more than 1000 hr with negligible degradation in TWT and MDC performances

Results from the Scottish national HAI prevalence survey

A national point prevalence survey was undertaken over the period of one calendar year in Scotland from October 2005 to October 2006. The prevalence of healthcare-associated infection (HAI) was 9.5% in acute hospitals and 7.3% in non-acute hospitals. The highest prevalence of HAI in acute hospital inpatients was found in the following specialties: care of the elderly (11.9%), surgery (11.2%), medicine (9.6%) and orthopaedics (9.2%). The lowest prevalence was found in obstetrics (0.9%). The most common types of HAI in acute hospital inpatients were: urinary tract infections (17.9% of all HAI), surgical site infections (15.9%) and gastrointestinal infections (15.4%). In non-acute hospitals one in ten inpatients in two specialties (combined) medicine (11.4%) and care of the elderly (7.8%) was found to have HAI, and one in 20 inpatients in psychiatry (5.0%) had HAI. In non-acute hospital patients, urinary tract infections were frequent (28.1% of all HAI) and similarly skin and soft tissue infection (26.8% of all HAI). When combined, these two HAI types affected 4% of all the inpatients in non-acute hospitals. This is the first survey of its kind in Scotland and describes the burden of HAI at a national level